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A CLASS BOOK 

ON 



WHEREIN ARE EXHIBITED THE 



GRACES AND STYLE OF 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 



BY THE REV. D. F/ HUTCHINSON, 

AUTHOR OF THE "ESSAY ON THE LORD'S DAY," &C. &C.. 

Designed for the use of Academies and Schools in general 
and private learners in particular. 



A SECOND EDITION, 

Enlarged and greatly improved by every necessary rule of 
Syntax, by a careful revision of every rule of Rhetoric 
necessary to be known by writers and public 
speakers, by a sufficient number of rules for 
correct punctuation with numerous ex- 
amples for practice. 
Uso with directions informing the pupil how to apply the differ- 
ent rules, and all introduced in such a manner as fo be easily 
undarstocd. 



HAMILTON: 

FRINTEI) AT THE CANADA CHRISTIAN ADVOCATE OFFICE. 

1853. 









/ 



%o 



'0\ 



TO SIR ALLEN NAPLES McNAB, M. P. 

FOR THE CITY OP HAMILTON. 

Sir: 

In being permitted to dedicate the present work on 
Rhetoric to you, I feel that grateful pleasuro which arises 
from the contemplation of labors sanctioned and encouraged 
by the patron and judge of elegant literature. 

It shall be my constant endeavor as it is my anxious 
wish to merit a continuance of your kind attention. 
I have the honor to be, Sir, 
With the sincerest respect 

Your Ob't Servant 

D. P. Hutchinson. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

In presenting this work on Rhetoric to the people of 
Canada, I do not feel it necessary to apologize in view of a 
doubt's existing in the mind of any enlightened person with 
regard to the usefulness and importance of such a publica- 
tion. The present edition I have reason to hope will be un- 
encumbered with typographical errors, while as the reader 
will perceive, very useful and interesting matter is added to 
the former one : sections and sentences supposed to be un- 
necessary in this work have been lopped off; and upon the 
whole the author is pleased in indulging a hope that it will 
meet the wants of the country, and the kind approbation of 
his present patrons and numerous friends. As many are 
aware the grand object of the work is to give necessary in- 
structions to all who desire them on the rules ^md exercises 
of English composition and public speaking ; and as we live 
in an age of improvement all must be convinced of the im- 
portance of lessons of instruction being published on this 
subject. 

This department of knowledge has too long been neglect- 
ed in this Province, and it is a matter of deep regret that 
instructions upon the art have hitherto been limited to our 
colleges and higher institutions of learning, and yet no study 
is more intimately connected with public life, public man- 
ners and refinement, than the most valuable and interesting- 
study of Rhetoric. 

It is true there are a few Rhetorics to be obtained in dif- 
ferent sections of the Province, but they are so few in num- 
ber and so rarely found as to most imperiously demand the 
present publication. I am convinced therefore, that the in- 
structors of our youth have hitherto labored under consid- 
erable disadvantage in not having a sufficient number of text 



books to put into the hands of those who are beginning to stu- 
dy the rules of English composition, and in addition to this, 
those which have been imported from other countries are de- 
fective, at least in this respect, that there are no exercises for 
practice in connection with the rules contained in those pub- 
lications, and hence the difficulty for the teacher to give a 
fair and practical knowledge of the art. By the study of 
them the theory may be learned, but the practical knowledge 
can only be obtained by exercise and application. 

In the work now before you, I have endeavored to remedy 
this defect. To the rules on general composition, I have 
carefully affixed the necessary examples for practice ; so 
that the pupil by the exercise of his own judgement, may 
apply the rule to the example of false Rhetoric, and by means 
of which, construe the sentence so that it may appear in the 
style of graceful composition. 

I feel a strgng inclination to hope, that the work will prove 
a very great benefit to the Province; that it will be the means 
of engaging the attention of the rising generation to the 
most useful and interesting study of Rhetoric ; and that 
foreigners will hereafter be constrained to acknowledge that 
the people of Canada are not indebted to them for pub- 
lications on literature, but that there is a sufficient enterprise 
in this Province to secure that respect and attention which an 
enlightened community is capable of commanding. 

The utility of the present publication must already be an- 
ticipated, and in order to render it more useful I have care- 
fully omitted every thing in it but what I conceived to be 
absolutely necessary for the practical instruction of the stu- 
dent. In this publication I do not claim originality to the 
fullest extent of that term, yet upon an inspection of the 
work the most superficial observer will immediately per- 
ceive the entire arrangement to be my own. At present 
it is only necessary to mention, that I have carefully con- 



suited every text-book of any considerable note published 
in the British Empire or the American Continent, and when- 
ever I found a known definition, or rule expressed in them 
all, I had no hesitation in adopting it. 

The work, although small in size, is a practical one, and 
contains within the compass of a very few pages, every thing 
essential to written composition and public speaking. Its 
definitions are easily remembered, and when once commit- 
ted they will not fail to be associated with every book the 
student reads, and every speaker he may afterwards be 
permitted to hear. A knowledge of it therefore, will give 
him a taste for reading which he will find to be very import- 
ant in the prosecution of all his studies. Having become 
acquainted with the different lessons of this book, he will 
find his memory greatly improved, he will remember what 
he reads more easily than he did before ; and when engaged 
in the study of an author, he will be enabled with more ease 
and freedom to duly understand his meaning. Even in the 
ordinary composition of a letter, he will find the rules con- 
tained in this work to be very important, and having ob- 
tained a knowledge of them, he will be enabled to arrange 
his thoughts in a manner satisfactory to himself and much 
more so to the mind of his correspondent. 

But not only in ordinary composition will a knowledge of 
this work be indispensable ; the student desiring to obtain a 
knowledge of the rules and graces of oratory will derive an 
unspeakable benefit from a perusal of these pages. In this 
work will be found a portion for all classes of society. To 
young gentlemen, especially, who are about to engage in any 
one of the several professions, the work is particularly re- 
commended, and it is sincerely hoped that when such per- 
sons have intelligently tested its merits, they will lend their 
influence in favor of its general circulation. 

By a little attention to the rules and exercises contained 



8 

in this book, a habit of good writing and speaking will be 
formed, and those just beginning to learn the art of compo- 
sing, each sentence in the examples is designed as a subject ' 
of composition. The student is required to correct it in 
writing, with whatever thoughts the subject may naturally 
present to his mind, and although at first he will undoubted- 
ly, as others have done before him, find many difficulties in 
his way, yet in a short time he will receive the abundant 
reward of his labor, in finding the exercise a benefit to him- 
self, and a very great blessing to mankind in general. Those 
little difficulties will very soon be removed, and the whole 
art will speedily appear in its native loveliness and beauty. 

It is a matter of no small gratification to find the interest 
there is at present manifested throughout the Province on 
the subject of education. At such a time when the minds of 
the people are alert to this subject, the study of Ehetoric 
should not be forgotten. As a fine art, an acquaintance with 
it is indispensable to a lady or a gentleman of intelligence or 
refinement, and therefore the importance of the following, 
lessons on composition and public speaking. 

This work being published in our own Province, it is most 
earnestly hoped that an intelligent community will patronize 
its publication ; and I am fully convinced that it requires but 
little intelligence for the student to duly appreciate the 
short but comprehensive study which, in this book, is given 
him to pursue. I have designedly reduced the work to the 
low price of Is lOJd, in order that it may have a general cir- 
culation, and that persons belonging to all classes of society 
may be favored with a copy, so that the public may learn 
from this fact, that it is not merely the paltry profits of the 
work I seek after, but the general information of the peo- 
ple. Should I accomplish my ends in this point I shall con- 
sider myself well paid for my trouble and expense. 

I need hardly say any thing further with regard to the 



9 

merits of the work itself, as the reader will learn by the in- 
troductory recommendations that it has been tested by those 
who are most able to judge of such a publication. Published 
as this work is under the influence of Clergymen, Barristers, 
Solicitors, Councillors, Professors, and the late Principal of 
Victoria College, I can hardly doubt but that it will meet the 
general approbation of the people. Among those who have 
critically examined the work and have given their signatures 
in favor of its merits are the following : — 

[From A. McNab, D D.] 

Sir, — Having, at your special request glanced over your 
Rhetoric I am disposed to entertain, in relation to the work, 
a very favorable opinion. 

Simplicity, clearness, and comprehensiveness of definition 
and arrangement, appear to be its distinguishing character- 
istics. As an elementary text-book, I doubt not, therefore, 
but tii at it will be found exceedingly useful to schools, and 
to private learners in particular. 

Having been, for about six years, Professor of Rhetoric 
and Belles Lettres (as well as Principal) in Victoria College, 
I feel a pleasure in giving my influence to aid a work which 
is designed to promote the interests of that much neglected 
department of study. 

In the noble undertaking to render attractive, tp the youth 
of our Country, the rather dry, but highly important study 
of Rhetoric, I wish you every success. 

I am, Sir, yours truly, 

Rev. Mr. Hutchinson, ) A. MACNAB. 

Belleville. $ 

[From E. Murney, M. P P. for County of Hastings.] 

I have much pleasure in concurring with the testimonial 
of the Rev. Alexander MacNab, in relation to the merits of 
this interesting publication. 

EDMUND MURNEY. 

After having the pleasure of examining the Rev. Mr. 
Hutchinson's Rhetoric I most heartily concur with the above 
recommendation of the Rev. Dr. MacNab. 

ROBERT M. ROY. 
Late Supt. of Education of the Town of Belleville. 



10 



[From G. Benjamin, Esq.. Belleville.] 



My Dear Sir, — Haying read your Rhetoric I am 
of opinion, that it is well adapted to instruct the youth- 
ful mind. It accomplishes an object too much lost sight of 
in all branches of tuition. It takes a great deal of labor 
from the student. That such a work must prove of great 
utility to the teacher as well as the student, there can be no 
doubt ; and I trust your labors may be fully compensated by 
a general use of your valuable little work. 

I remain, dear Sir, your obedient 

GEO. BENJAMIN. 
Rev. D. F. Hutchinson. 

[From the celebrated Mrs. Moodie.] 

Sir,— I have read with much pleasure the Rhetoric 
you submitted to my inspection ; and as far as I am able to 
judge, my opinion of it is highly favorable. 

The subject — naturally a dry one — you have rendered 
very interesting, by the excellent and simple manner in 
which your instructions are conveyed. Your rules are short 
and practical, and their application easily understood. I 
have no doubt but that it will prove a useful addition to our 
colonial school libraries. 

Unfortunately, the present success of a book 5 does not al- 
ways depend upon its intrinsic worth ; yet, I see no reason 
to entertain a doubt as to the success of this ; and I sincere- 
ly hope, that in this instance, the opinion of the public and 
my own, may fully coincide. 

I remain, Sir, yours truly, 

SUSANNA MOODIE. 
Rev. D. F. Hutchinson. 

[From J. W. D. Moodie, Esq., High Sheriff County of Hastings:] 

Sir, — From the specimens you have sent me, of your 
Rhetoric which I have perused with much interest, I 
feel disposed to form a very favorable opinion of what 
the work will be when completed. The definitions and 
explanations are simple, and intelligible to the most ordina- 
ry capacity. 

Your obedient serv't, 

J. W. DUNBAR MOODIE. 
To Rev. D. F. Hutchinson. 



11 

We, the undersigned Clergymen, have much pleasure in 
recommending the Key. Mr. Hutchinson s Rhetoric to 
the public, as entirely worthy of their confidence. We 
haye carefuly examined its pages, and find his instruct- 
ions both plain and comprehensive. His Lesson on Oratory 
and public speaking in general, cannot fail to secure the pat- 
ronage of every intelligent man in the Province, and we 
have no doubt but that the Reverend Author will meet with 
the general success that his work deserves. 

JOHN REYNOLDS, 

Bishop of M. E. Church, 
WILLIAM GREGG, A. M. 
Minister of the Presbyterian Free Church, and Superinten- 
dant of Education. • 

JOHN GEMLEY, 

Wesleyan Minister. 
L. S. CHURCH, 
PastOf of M. E. Church of Belleville. 
D. MURPHY, 
Clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church. 

In conclusion I beg to express my thanks to my former 
patrons and friends who so kindly sustained me in the pub- 
lication of 1850, and also to the Editors of the Toronto Pat- 
riot, Toronto Colonist, Kingston News, Port Hope Watch- 
man, Simcoe Standard, Christian Guardian, Hastings Chron" 
icle, Belleville Intelligencer, Orange Lily, Brockville States- 
man, Montreal Courier, Picton Sun, Canada Christian Advo- 
cate, with some others, for the very kind manner in which 
they have recommended mV work on Rhetoric to the public. 

D. F. HUTCHINSON. 

Bytown, May 28, 1853. 



CLASS BOOK ON RHETORIC. 

Rhetoric is the art of speaking or writing with persua- 
sion, or that which enables us to apply language to the best 
advantage. 

OF LANGUAGE. 

Language is the art of communicating thought or the 
ideas of our minds, by certain articulate sounds. 

It is to be regarded as spoken and written. 

Spoken language is the representation of our ideas, and 
written language is a symbol of the spoken. 

The representation of ideas by pictures called Hyero- 
glyphics was the first attempt towards writing. 

Cadmus, the Phenician, a contemporary with King Da- 
vid, was the first who brought letters into Greece. 

His alphabet consisted of sixteen letters. 

Writing was first exhibited on pillars and tables of 
stone, and afterwards on plates of the softer metals. Job 
xix. 23.24. 

ON TASTE. 

Taste is the power of receiving pleasure or pain from 
the beauties or deformities of nature or art. 

It is common to all men : for whatever is orderly or 
proportioned, grand or harmonious, new or sprightly, will 
please the philosopher, the child and the peasant. 

Its feeble glimmerings appear only in some ; while in 
others it rises to a high discernment of the most refined 
beauties. 

This is chiefly to be ascribed to culture and education. 



14 

The immense superiority of civilized over barbarous 
nations, proves it to be an improvable faculty. 

Rule. — Pay attention to the most approved models, 
study the best authors, and compare lower and higher de- 
grees of the same beauties. 

Reason and good sense are essential in the decisions of 
taste. 

A good taste is a compound of natural sensibility to 
beauty and of improved understanding. 

ON CRITICISM AND GENIUS. 

Criticism is the application of taste and good sense to 
the several line arts. 

Its design is to distinguish what is beautiful from what 
is faulty in every performance. 

Genius is that talent or aptitude which we receive from 
nature in order to excel in any one thing. 

It may be improved by art and study. 

To excel in this talent, the student must limit his ap- 
plication to a few objects ; as a person indifferently inclined 
to the several professions will not be likely to excel in any. 

ON STYLE. 

Style is the peculiar manner in which a person con- 
veys his expressions by words. 

It is a picture of the ideas of the mind, and of the ar- 
dor in which they there exist. 

Perspicuity and ornament are the qualities of a good 
style. 

Perspicuity signifies clearness of expression, and im- 
plies the setting up of the sentence so that it may be easily 
understood. 

Perspicuity requires attention first to words and phra- 
ses, and secondly to the construction of sentences. 



15 

With respect to words and phrases, Perspicuity requires 
three properties viz., Purity, Propriety and Precision. 

Purity relates to such words and constructions as be- 
long to the idiom of a particular language, in opposition to 
words and phrases taken from foreign languages. 

Propriety relates to the choice of such words as the 
best and most established usage has appropriated to those 
ideas intended to be expressed by them. 

Precision signifies the retrenching of all superfluities, 
and the pruning of the expression so that it may exhibit 
neither more nor less than the idea intended to be con- 
veyed. 

Written composition may be faulty in three respects : 
it may express more than the author means, or less than the 
author means, or what the author means though not com- 
pletely. 

Precision is opposed to these three faults. 

The ornament of style is known by the etymology of the 
word. 

ON SENTENCES. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, making com- 
plete sense, and always containing a nominative and a verb. 

There are two kinds of sentences : simple and com- 
pound. 

A simple sentence contains but one affirmation or ne- 
gation. 

A compound sentence contains two or more simple 
ones. 

The principal parts of a sentence are usually three, the 
nominative, the verb, and if the verb ba transitive, the object 
governed by the verb. 

The other parts are called either primary or secondary 
adjuncts. 



16 

A clause or member is a subdivision of a compound 
sentence, and is itself a sentence either simple or compound. 

ON PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing composition by points 
or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense 
and relation of the words, and pointing and noting the dif- 
ferent pauses and inflections required in reading. 

The principal points or marks are the comma, (,) the 
semicolon, (;) the colon, (:) the period, (.) the dash( — ) the 
note of interrogation, (?) the note of exclamation, (!) and 
the parenthesis, ( ). 

RULES. 
I. 

When two or more words follow one another in the 
same construction, the comma is to be placed after every one 
of them but the last, except when they are coupled singly or 
in pairs by conjunctions. 

II. 

When a sentence consists of two or more members, 
they are separated by commas : except when the relative 
pronoun immediately follows its antecedent. 



III. 



Words, denoting the person or object addressed, and 
words signifying the same thing, are separated from the rest 
of the sentence by a comma. 



17 
IV. 

Words or clauses which express opposition or contrast 
are generally separated by a comma. 

V. 

The modifying words and phrases, such as may, howev- 
er, finally, in short, at least, &c, are separated from the 
joining words by a comma. 

VI. 

Words supposed to be spoken, or which are taken from 
another writer, but not formally quoted, are preceded by a 
comma. 

VII. 

When a sentence consists of two parts, the one com- 
plete in itself and the other added as an inference, or to give 
some explanation ; the two parts are separated by a semi- 
colon. 

VIII. 

When a sentence consists of several members, each 
containing a distinct proposition, yet, having a dependence 
upon some common clause, they are separated by semi- 
colons. 

IX. 

When a sentence consists of two parts, the one com- 
plete in itself and the other containing an additional re- 
mark they are separated by a colon. 

2 



18 

X. 

When the sense of several members, separated from 
each other by semicolons, depends on the last clause, that 
clause should be separated from the other by a colon. 

XI. 

When an example is given, or a quotation formally 
made, it should be separated from the rest of the sentence 
by a colon. 

XII. 

The end of every sentence should be marked by a 
period, unless it be interrogatory or exclamatory. 

XIII. 

The period is used in abbreviations. 

XIV. 

The note of interrogation is used at the close of a 
sentence which asks a question. 

XV. 

The note of exclamation is used after expressions of 
emotion. 

XVI. 

The dash is used to mark a break or abrupt turn in a 
sentence. 

XVII. 

The parenthesis is used to enclose an explanatory 
clause, not absolutely necessary to the sense but useful in 
explaining it. 



19 

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 

Rule 1. John was a braye pious agreeable and patient 
man. Self conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the 
prospects of many a youth. Plain honest simple candid 
truth needs no artificial covering. Live soberly righteously 
godly and religiously in this world. Vicissitudes of good 
and evil of trials and consolations of poverty and wealth fill 
up the life of man. In eternity days years and ages are 
nothing. 

2. Virtue supports in adversity and moderates in prosper- 
ity. Sensuality contaminates the body and degrades man 
from his rank in creation. His father dying he succeeded to 
the estate. To confess the truth I was greatly to blame. 
That life is long which answers lifes great end. Good and 
evil like heat and cold differ totally. 

3. My son give me thy heart. St Paul the apostle of Je- 
sus Christ, This said, he formed thee O Adam thee O man 
Dust of the ground. To you my worthy benefactors I am 
indebted for all I enjoy. Hope the balm of life soothes us 
under every misfortune. 

4. He was learned but not pedantic. He may possess but 
he cannot enjoy. Earthly goods are given us for our bene- 
fit but not for our chief felicity. Calamities may trouble 
but they cannot destroy the Christian. Peter denied Christ 
but he afterwards repented. This life is fleeting but the 
next is eternal. 

5. Finally let me repeat what I have stated before. A 
kind word nay even a kind look often affords comfort, I 
proceed secondly to point out the proper subject of thought. 
I shall make some observations first on the external condi- 
tion of man. 



20 

6. It hurts mans pride to say I do not know. Vice is not 
of such a nature that we can say to it hitherto shalt thou 
come and no farther. One of the noblest properties of 
Christian virtue is to love our enemies. We are strictly en- 
joined not to follow a multitude to do evil. We are com- 
manded to do good to all men. 

7. Economy is no disgrace it is better to live on a little 
than to outlive a great deal. The passions are the chief de- 
stroyers of our peace for they are the storms and tempests 
of the moral world. HeaveD is the region of gentleness and 
friendship hell of perverseness and animosity. The path of 
truth is a plain and safe path that of falsehood a perplexing 
maze. 

\ 

8. Philosophers assert" that nature is unlimited in her 
operations that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve 
that knowledge will always be progressive and that all future 
generations will continue to make discoveries of which we 
have not the slightest idea. That darkness of character 
where we can see no heart those foldings of art through 
which no native affection is allowed to pass present an ob- 
ject unamiable in every season of life but particularly odious 
in youth. 

9. Study to acquire the habit of thinking no study is more 
important. Virtue is too lovely to be immured in a cell the 
world is the sphere of her action. Do not flatter yourself 
with the hope of perfect happiness there is no such thing in 
the world. 

10. A Divine Legislator uttering his voice from Heaven ; 
an Almighty Governor stretching forth his arm to reward or 
punish ; informing us of perpetual rest hereafter prepared 
for the godly ; assuring us of indignation and misery await- 






21 

ing the impenitent these are considerations which overawe 
the world, support integrity and check guilt. 

11. He was heard to say " I have finished my course." 
All our conduct towards men should be influenced by this 
precept " Do unto others as ye would that they should do 
unto you. 

13. At 10 A M. L L D D. 

14. Who will accompany me Are you ready 

15. O peace how much I love thee 

16. I shall if circumstances permit attend to the matter 
on to-morrow. 

RULES FOR WRITTEN COMPOSITION AND 
PUBLIC SPEAKING. 

I. 

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. 

IL 

A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb must 
be in the nominative case. 

III. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns signifying 
the same thing are put by apposition in the same case. 

IV. 

Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns expressed or un- 
derstood. 



22 



A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person 
number and gender. 

VI. 

When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying 
the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the 
plural number. 

VII. 

When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the 
idea of unity the pronoun must agree with it in the third 
person singular number. 

VIII. 

When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connect- 
ed by and it must agree with them in the plural number : 
but when the antecedents are of different persons, the first 
person is preferable to the second, and the second to the 
third. 

IX. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in person 
and number. 

X. 

When the nominative is a collective noun, conveying 
the idea of plurality the verb must agree with it in the plu- 
ral number : but when conveying the idea of unity it re- 
quires a verb in the third person singular. 



23 
XL 

When verbs are connected by a conjunction they must 
either agree in mood, tense and form, or have separate nomi- 
natives expressed. 

XII. 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or are govern- 
ed by prepositions. 

XIII. 

Adverbs belong to, and qualify verbs, participles, ad- 
jectives and other adverbs. 

XIV. 

Two negatives in English destroy one another, or are 
equivalent to an affirmative. 

XV. 

Conjunctions connect either words or sentences. 

XVI. 
Prepositions show the relation of things. 

xvn. 

Inteijections have no dependent construction. 

xvm. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 



24 

XIX. 

A noun or pronoun is put absolute in the nominative 
when its case depends upon no other word. 

XX. 

Active transitive verbs and their perfect and pluperfect 
participles govern the objective case. 

XXI. 

Active intransitive passive and neuter verbs and their 
participles take the same case after as before them when 
both words refer to the same thing. 

XXII. 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case is govern- 
ed by the name of the thing possessed. 

, XXIIL 

The preposition To governs the infinitive mood and 
commonly connects it to a finite verb. 



XXIV. 



I 

a, 



The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, 
see and their participles take the infinitive after them with- 
out the preposition To : But the preposition is always em- 
ployed after the passive form of these verbs. 

XXV. 

A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in 
the subjunctive, present, and a mere supposition with indefi- 



25 

nite time by a verb in the subjunctive imperfect : but a con- 
ditional circumstance assumed as a fact requires the indica- 
tive mood. 

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 

Rule 2. Thee must have been idle. Not proper because 
the adjective pronoun thee is made the subject of the verb, 
must have been. But according to Rule 2nd, " A noun or 
&c.," Therefore thee should be thou : Thus, thou must have 
been idle. 

Him that loiters by the way, may be belated. Them that 
labor, should be rewarded. Us who are spared ought to be 
thankful. You and me are equally concerned. Are not 
thee and him belated. My brother is older than me. He 
cannot read so well as thee. Who fastened the door ? Me. 
Whom do you suppose did it ? 

3. I heard from my cousin, she that was here last week. 
Not proper because the nominative pronoun She signifies the 
same person with cousin which is objective case, governed by 
from. But according to Rule 3rd, A noun &c. Therefore 
she should be her : Thus, I heard from my cousin, her that 
was here last week. 

That was the tailor, him that made my clothes. I saw 
your friend, he that was here last winter. Dennis, the gard- 
ener, him that gave me the tulips, has promised me a piony. 
This book is a present from my brother Richard, he that 
keeps the book store. 

4. I have brought them books. Not proper because the 
pronoun them is made to belong to and qualify the noun 
books. But according to Rule 4, Adjectives &c. Therefore 



26 

them should be those : Thus, I have brought those books. 
The entertainment was magnificently. 

5. Ought not every man to be careful of their reputation. 
Not proper because the pronoun their is of the plural num- 
ber and does not agree with its antecedent noun man which 
is singular. But according to Rule 5, A pronoun &c. There- 
fore their should be his : Thus, ought not every man to be 
careful of his reputation. Every one must judge of their 
own feelings. We may be displeased with a person without 
hating them. I poured water on the embers to quench it 
Ask her for the scissors, and bring it to me. 

6. The jury will be confined until it agrees on a verdict. 
Not proper because the pronoun it is of the singular num- 
ber, and does not agree with its antecedent noun jury, which 
is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality. But 
according to Rule 6th, When the antecedent &c. Therefore 
it should be they : Thus, the jury will be confined until they 
agree on a verdict. The people will not relinquish its rights. 
The clergy had declared its intention. The party disagreed 
among itself. The committee were divided in its sentiments. 
The company then renewed its claims. 

7. The nation will enforce their laws. Not proper because 
the collective noun nation in this case does not convey the 
idea of plurality. It means one nation irrespective o£ parts, 
and therefore conveying the idea of unity it should be rep- 
resented by a singular pronoun : Thus, The nation will en- 
force its laws. The Council has published their acts. The 
Parliament is now in session and they will repeal bad 
laws. 

8. Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his counte- 
nance. Not proper because the pronoun itself is of the sin- 



27 

gular number, and does not agree with its two antecedents 
discontent and sorrow which are connected by the conjunc- 
tion and. But according to Rule 8th, When a pronoun &c : 
Therefore itself should be themselves : Thus, Discontent and 
sorrow manifested themselves in his countenance. Avoid 
lightness and frivolity : it is allied to folly. Truth and hon- 
esty cannot fail of its reward. Learning and good sense al- 
ways adorn its possessor. Banish envy and strife : it will 
destroy your peace. Cherish love and unity : it is the life of 
society. John and thou art attached to their country. {See 
the last clause of the Rule.) 

9. They was kindly received. Not proper because the- 
verb was received is of the singular number and does not 
agree with its nominative case they which is plural. But ac- 
cording to Rule 9th, A verb &c : Therefore ivas received 
should be were received. They were kindly received. Ap- 
pearances is often deceptive. The propriety of such res- 
trictions are doubtful. There is windows on three sides of 
the room. I has a house on Murray Street. Six months 
interest were demanded. The propriety of these rules are 
evident. The mill with all its appurtenances were de- 
stroyed. 

10. The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow* 
Not proper because the verb rejoices is of the singular num- 
ber and does not agree with its nominative case people which* 
is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality. But 
according to Rule 10th ? When the nominative is a collective 
&c. Therefore rejoices should be rejoice : Thus, The peo- 
ple rejoice in that which should cause sorrow. The nobility 
was assured that he would not interfere. The committee 
has attended to their appointment, The majority was dis- 
posed to adopt the measure. All the world is spectators of 



28 

your conduct. Blessed is the people that know the joyful 
sound. His army were defeated. 

11. If you sincerely desire and have earnestly pursued 
virtue &c. Not proper because the verb have pursued is of 
the perfect tense and is connected without a separate nomi- 
native by and to the verb desire which is of the present 
tense. But according to Rule 11th, When verbs are &c. 
Therefore have pursued should be pursue : Thus, If you 
sincerely desire and earnestly pursue virtue &c. I told you 
his fault and entreat you to forgive him. Professing regard 
and to act differently, discovers a base mind. He has gone 
home but may return. 

14. I dont know nothing about it. Not proper because 
in this sentence there are two negatives dont and nothing. 
But according to Rule 14 Two negatives &c. Therefore 
nothing should be any thing : Thus, I dont know any thing 
about it. I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects 
her. Be honest nor take no shape nor semblance of dis- 
guise. There cannot be nothing more insignificant than 
vanity. 

18. Who will you go with ? Not proper because the nom- 
inative pronoun who is made the object of the relation ex- 
pressed by the preposition with. But according to Rule 18 
Prepositions &c. Therefore who should be whom: Thus, 
Whom will you go with. From who did you get that book ? 
To who is he going ? To I or thou. 

19. Him, having ended his discourse the assembly dis- 
persed. Not proper because the pronoun him whose case 
depends upon no other word is in the objective case. But 
according to Rule 19, A noun &c. Therefore Him should 



29 

be He : Thus, He, having ended his discourse the assembly 
dispersed. Him that has ears to hear let him hear. Me, 
being young they deceived me. The child is lost, and me, 
whither shall I go ? Thee being present, he would not tell 
what he knew. Arise, and gird thyself, thee that sleep- 
est ! Oh wretched us ! shut from the light of hope ! Thee 
too ! Brutus my son ! cried Csesar overcome. But him, the 
chieftain of them all, His sword lies rusting on the wall. 

20. She, I shall more readily forgive. Not proper be- 
cause the nominative pronoun she is made the object of the 
active transitive verb shall forgive. But according to Rule 
20, Active &c. Therefore She should be Her : Thus, Her, I 
shall more readily forgive. Thou only have I chosen. Who 
shall we send on this errand ? My father allowed my brother 
and I to accompany him. He that is idle and mischievous 
reprove sharply. Who should I meet but my old friend. 

21. We did not know that it was him. Not proper be- 
cause the objective pronoun him which comes after the neu- 
ter verb was signifies the same thing with the nominative it 
that precedes it. But according to Rule 21st, Active intran- 
sitive &c. Therefore him should be he : Thus, We did not 
know that it was he. We thought it was thee. I would act 
the same part, if I were him. It could not have been her. 
It is not me. They believed it to be I. 

24. They need not to call upon her. Not proper because 
the preposition to is inserted before the verb which follows 
the active verb need. But according to Rule 24th, The ac- 
tive &c. Therefore to should be expunged : Thus, They 
need not call upon her. 1 felt a chilling sensation to creep 
over me. We have heard him to mention the subject. Bid 
these boys to come in immediately. I dare to say he has 
not got home yet. 



30 

25. He will not be pardoned unless he repents. Not pro- 
per because the verb repents, which is used to express a con- 
tingency is of the indicative mood. But according to Rule 
25th, A future &c. Therefore repents should be repent : 
Thus, He will not be pardoned unless he repent. I shall 
walk out in the afternoon unless it rains. If thou feltest as 
I do, we should soon decide. I know that thou wert not 
slow to hear. Let him take heed lest he falls. If thou cast- 
est me off, I shall be miserable. I believed, whatever was 
the issue all would be well. If he was an impostor, he must 
hav^been detected. 

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 

A knowledge of the construction of sentences is indispen- 
sable to written composition, or public speaking. 

The properties of a perfect sentence are Clearness, Unity, 
Strength and Harmony. 

Clearness is opposed to ambiguity, and implies the expul- 
sion of whatever tends to leave the mind in suspense, as to 
the meaning. 

To effect this, great attention is requisite to the proper 
disposal of the relatives, who, which, what and that : which 
should be placed as near as possible to their respective ante- 
cedents. 

The unity of a sentence implies that the several members 
should be so closely bound together as to make one impression 
only upon the mind. 

By the strength of a sentence is meant such a disposition 
of the several words and members as will exhibit the sense 
to the best advantage : as will give to every word and every 
member its due weight and force. 



By harmony is implied a judicious choice of such words as 
are musical to the ear. 

This implies agreeable modulation in general, without any 
particular expression. 

Ambiguity is opposed to clearness and arises from two 
causes; either from a wrong choice of words, or a wrong- 
collocation of them. 

RULES. 



Words or members most nearly related should be placed 
as near each other as possible that their mutual relation may 
clearly appear. 

Observe 1. Whatever leaves the mind in any sort of sus- 
pense as to the meaning, should be carefully avoided in all 
written composition. 

II. 

Relative pronouns should be placed as near as possible to 
their antecedents. 

Ob. A small error in giving relative pronouns a place in 
a sentence may obscure the meaning of the (vhole, and by 
displacing them we always find something awkward and dis- 
jointed in the structure of the period. 

III. 

The relative that, in the following cases is preferable to 
who or which : 
After an adjective of the superlative degree. 
After the adjective same. 



32 



After the antecedent who. 
After a joint reference to persons and things. 
After an unlimited antecedent. 
After an antecedent introduced by the expletive it. 
And in general where the propriety of who or which is 
doubtful. 

IV. 

When several relative clauses follow one another, and 
have a similar dependence in respect to the antecedent, the 
same pronoun must be employed in each. 

V. 

To preserve the unity of a sentence the subject in it must 
be changed as little as possible. 

Observe 1. A sentence may consist of parts, but these 
parts should be closely bound together, so as to make an im- 
pression of one object only, upon the mind. 

2 In every sentence there is some person or thing which 
is the principal or governing word : this should be kept in 
view from the beginning to the end of it. 

3. By shifting the nominatives, we, they, Zand you, during 
the course of the sentence, the reader would be confused by 
the disunited view given him of the subject. 

VI. 

Never crowd into one sentence ideas which have so little 
connection, that they may with propriety be divided into two 
' or more sentences. 

Ob. A violation of this rule is so exceedingly disgusting, 



33 

that it is better to err by having too many short sentences 
than by having theui overloaded and confused. 

VII 

Keep clear of unnecessary parenthesis in the middle of the 
sentence. 

Ob. 1. These may give tokens of a vivid imagination, but 
they very generally break up the unity of the sentence. 

2. They give evidence that the writer has not art enough 
to introduce his glancing thought into its own proper place. 

VIII. 

Bring the sentence to a full and perfect close. 

Ob. 1. An unfinished sentence with respect to grammar 
is no sentence at all. 

2. Care should be taken not to overfinish it. There is al- 
ways a point at which the mind desires to rest : this should 
be the terminating point : anything added to it is both su- 
perflous and injurious : anything short of it is equally 
detrimental to the unity of a sentence. 

IX. 

To promote the strength of a sentence, take from it all 
redundant words. 

Ob. 1. After the composition is written let the author ex- 
amine every clause and every sentence of it critically and 
carefully. 

2. Circuitous modes of expression should be contracted 
and all useless excrescences should be cut off. 



34 

3. Care must be taken not to prune the sentences so close- 
ly as to render the subject hard, dry and inelegant. 

4. Superflous members should also be lopped off. 

5. The writer ought to be sure that the last member of the 
sentence is not a repetition of any other one : many written 
compositions abound with such faults. 

X. 

Pay particular attention to copulatives, relatives and par- 
ticles employed for transition and connection, and never un- 
necessarily separate a preposition from the noun or pronoun 
which it governs. 

Ob. 1. An unnecessary repetition of the copulative and 
will weaken the sentence. 

2. It is well however to repeat the copulative, when the 
writer wishes to prevent a quick transition from one object 
to another ; or when mentioning objects which are designed 
to be kept as distinct from each other as possible. 

XI. 

Dispose of the principal word or words in that part of the 
sentence, where they will make the most striking impression 
on the mind. 

Ob. The most important words are placed in the beginning 
of a sentence. 

XII. 

To promote the strength of a sentence, let the different 
members of it go on rising in their importance one above 
another. 



35 

Ob. This order in the management of a sentence is called 
a climax, and must be regarded as a very great beauty in 
composition. 

XIII. 

A weaker assertion should not be placed subsequent to a 
stronger one; and when a sentence consists of two members, 
the longer should in general be the concluding one. 

Ob. Periods thus divided are pronounced more easily ; 
and by placing the shortest member first we can more readi- 
ly carry it in our memory, and with one glance perceive the 
whole connection. 

XIV. 

Avoid concluding the sentence with an adverb, a preposi- 
tion, or any inconsiderable word, unless it be emphatic. 

Ob. 1. We should always avoid concluding a sentence, or 
even a member with any of those particles which distinguish 
the cases of nouns or pronouns ; as of, to, from, with, by. 

2. A complex verb, that is a single verb joined with a pre- 
position, as bring about, give over, should never be placed at 
the end of a sentence. 

3. We should avoid concluding a sentence with the pro- 
noun it, especially when it is joined with its governing pre- 
position. 

4. A phrase, which expresses a circumstance only, cannot 
without great inelegance be the concluding member of a 
sentence. 

5. When a number of circumstances is to be introduced 
great care should be taken not to crowd too many of them 



36 

together ; but to intersperse them gracefully throughout the 
whole, always joining them to the principal words upon 
which they depend. 

ON THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
HARMONY. 

The beauty of musical construction depends upon the 
choice and arrangement of words. 

Those words are most pleasing to the ear } which are com- 
posed of smooth and liquid sounds, in which there is a pro- 
per intermixture of vowels and consonants without too ma- 
ny harsh consonants, or too many open vowels in suc- 
cession. 

Long words are generally more pleasing to the ear than 
short ones ; and those are the most musical, which are not 
wholly composed of long or short syllables, but of an inter- 
anixture of both ; as, delight, amuse, velocity, celerity, beauti- 
ful, impetuosity. 

Whatever is easy to the organs of speech, is always grate- 
ful to the ear. 

Rule.— While the period advances, the termination of each 
member forms a pause in the pronunciation ; and these pau- 
ses should be so distributed, as to bear a certain musical 
proportion to each other. 

When we aim at dignity or elevation, the sound should 
increase to the last; the longest member of the period, and 
the fullest and most sonorous words, should be reserved for 
the conclusion. 

Words which consist chiefly of short syllables, as, contrary, 
particular, retrospect, seldom terminate a sentence harmo- 



37 

niousiy, unless a previous run of long syllables have rendered 
them pleasing to the ear. 

Short sentences should be blended with long and swelling 
ones, to render discourse sprightly as well as magnificent. 

Sounds have in many respects an intimate correspondence 
with our ideas, partly natural and partly produced by arti- 
ficial associations. 

NATURE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 

Figures may be regarded as the language of passion or of 
imagination. 

They are divided into two great classes, figures of words, 
and figures of thought. 

Figures of words are commonly called tropes, and consist 
in a word's being used to signify something different from its 
original meaning. Thus for instance, " light ariseth to the 
upright in darkness." Here the trope consists in " light and 
darkness" not being taken literally, but substituted for com- 
fort in adversity ; to which conditions of life they are sup- 
posed to bear some resemblance. 

The figure of thought, supposes the figure to consist in the 
sentiment only, while the words are used in their literal 
sense, as in exclamations, interrogations, apostrophes, and 
comparisons, where, though the words be varied, or tran- 
slated from one language into another, the same figure is 
still preserved. 

By tropes and figures language is enriched and made more 
copious. 

Figures furnish the pleasure of enjoying two objects, pre- 
sented at the same time to our view ; the principal idea to- 



38 

gether with its accessory, which gives it the figurative char- 
acter. 

All tropes being founded on the relation which one object 
bears to another, the one may be substituted for that of the 
other ; and by this the vivacity of the idea is generally increas- 
ed. Thus, the cup is frequently introduced by speakers and 
writers to signify the wine in the cup, &c. 

When a trope is founded on the relation between an ante- 
cedent and its consequent, it is called a metalepsis. 

When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole ; 
a genus for a species, or a species for a genus ; the singular 
number for the plural, or the plural for the singular ; in 
general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for 
the precise object meant ; the figure is then termed a synec- 
doche. We say for instance, " a fleet of so many sail" in- 
stead of so many ships. 

ON METAPHORS. 



Metaphor is founded entirely on the resemblance which 
one object bears to another. 

It is nearly allied to simile or comparison, and is compar- 
ison in an abridged form. 

When we say of a great man, " he upholds the state, like 
a pillar, which supports the weight of an edifice" we evi- 
dently make a comparison ; but, when we say of him, " he 
is the pillar of the state," it becomes a metaphor. 

Metaphor approaches the nearest to painting of any other 
figure. 



It gives light and strength to description ; makes intellec- 
tual ideas in some degree visible, by giving them color, sub- 
stance and sensible qualities. 

RULES. 



Let the metaphor be always suited to the nature of the 
subject. 

Observe 1. Some metaphors are beautiful in poetry, 
which would be unnatural in prose ; some are graceful in 
orations, which would be highly improper in historical or 
philosophical composition. 

2. Figures should always be adapted to the ideas which 
they are intended to adorn. 

II. 

Beware of using such figures or allusions as raise in the 
mind disagreeable, mean, or low ideas. 

Ob. 1. To render a metaphor perfect, it must not only be 
apt, but pleasing ; it must entertain as well as enlighten. 

2 Nature allows us to collect figures from her stores with- 
out any restraint, the field therefore, for figurative language 
is very wide. 

III. 

A metaphor should be founded on a resemblance which is 



40 

clear and striking, not far fetched, nor difficult to be dis- 
covered. 



Ob. 1. Harsh or forced metaphors are always displeasing, 
because they perplex the reader, and render the thought in- 
tricate and confused. 

2. Metaphors, borrowed from any of the sciences, are al- 
ways faulty by their obscurity. 

IV. 

Never jumble metaphorical and plain language together : 
never construct a period so that part of it must be under- 
stood metaphorically and part literally ; for this always pro- 
duces confusion. 

V. 

Let not two different metaphors meet on the same object. 

VI. 
Never crowd metaphors together on the same object. 

' Ob. Though each of them be distinct, yet, if they be 
heaped on one another, they produce confusion. 

VII. 

Metaphors should not be too far pursued. 

Ob. 1. When resemblance is long dwelt upon, and carried 
into all its minute circumstances, an allegory is produced in- 



41 

stead of a metaphor, the reader is wearied and the discourse 
becomes obscure. 

2. This is very justly termed straining a metaphor. 

3. The difference between a metaphor and an allegory is 
this, the metaphor is short, the allegory prolonged. 

4. The metaphor always explains itself by the words that 
are connected with it, but the interpretation of the allegory 
is left to our own consideration and reflection. 



HYPERBOLE, PERSONIFICATION AND 
APOSTROPHE. 

Hyperbole consists in magnifying an object beyond its na- 
tural bounds. 

This figure occurs very frequently in all languages, and 
even in common conversation. 

As swift as the wind ; as white as the snow ; and our usual 
forms of compliment are in general extravagant hyperboles. 

Hyperboles are of two kinds ; such as are employed in de- 
scription, and such as are suggested by passion. 

Those are by far the best which are the effects of passion. 

In simple description hyperboles must be employed with 
more caution. 

An extravagant hyperbole is oalled a bombast. 

When life and actions are attributed to inanimate objects, 
the figure is called personification. 



42 

Our common conversation abounds with this figure. Thus, 
when we say the earth thirsts for rain, or the fields smile 
with plenty ; ivhen ambition is said to be restless, or a disease 
deceitful ; such expressions assume the property of living 
beings to these inanimate objects. 

There are three degrees of this figure : The first is when 
some of the properties of living creatures are ascribed to in- 
animate objects; the second, when those inanimate objects 
are described as acting like such as have life ; the third, 
when they are exhibited either as speaking to us, or as lis- 
tening to what we say to them. 

The humblest discourse admits of the first without raising 
the style much above common discourse. 

In the second degree we rise a step higher, and the per- 
sonification becomes more sensible. 

The third is the boldest of all rhetorical figures ; it is the 
style of strong passion only ; and therefore should never be 
attempted, except when the mind is considerably heated and 
agitated. 

RULES FOR THE THIRD SORT OF 
PERSONIFICATION. 



Never attempt it unless prompted by strong passion, and 
never continue it when the passion begins to subside. 

II. 

Never personify an object that has not some dignity in 
itself. 



43 

COMPARISON, ANTITHESIS, INTERROGATION, EX- 
CLAMATION, AND OTHER FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

A comparison, or simile, is the resemblance be- 
tween two objects expressed in form, and usually pursued 
more fully than the nature of a metaphor admits. Exam- 
ple : The actions of princes are like thoso great rivers, the 
course of which every one beholds, but their springs have 
been seen by few. 

Comparisons are of two kinds, explaining and embellishing 
comparisons. 

In explaining comparisons we explain one object by anoth- 
er with a view to make the hearer or reader understand that 
object more clearly. 

In comparisons of this kind perspicuity and usefulness are 
chiefly to be studied. 

Embellishing comparisons more frequently occur than ex- 
plaining ones. 

Resemblance is the foundation of this figure. 

A simile or comparison should never be introduced in the 
midst of passion. 

Embellishing comparison however is not the language of 
a mind totally unmoved, for being a figure of dignity, it al- 
ways requires some elevation in the subject to make it 
proper. 

It supposes the imagination enlivened, though the heart be 
not agitated by passion. 



44 



Comparisons must not be drawn from things, which have 
too near and obvious a resemblance of the object, with which 
they are compared. 

Neither ought they to be founded on likenesses too faint 
and distant. 

The object, from which a comparison is drawn ought nev- 
er to be an unknown object, nor one of which few people 
can have a clear knowledge. 

In compositions of a serious or elevated kind, similes 
should never be drawn from low or mean objects. 

Antithesis is founded on the contrast of two objects. 

By contrast, objects opposed to one another, appear in a ■ 
stronger light. 



Too frequent use of antithesis is to be avoided. 
Interrogations and Exclamations are passionate figures. 



The literal use of interrogation is to ask a question ; but, 
when men are prompted by passion, whatever they would I 
affirm, or deny, with great earnestness, they naturally put in ' 
the form of a question ; expressing thereby the firmest con- 
fidence of the truth of their own opinion ; and appealing to 
their hearers for the impossibility of the contrary. Exam- 
ple : "Hath he said it ? And shall he not do it ? Hath he 
spoken it ? And shall he not make it good T 

Interrogation may be successfully employed in the prose- 
cution of close and earnest reasoning ; but exclamations be- 
long to stronger emotions of the mind. 



45 



Vision is that figure which describes some past act or cir- 
mistance, as if passing before our eyes at the present 
me. 



ON THE CHARACTERS OF STYLE. 

There are nine general characters of style : viz., the Dif- 
ise, the Concise, the Feeble, the JYervous, the Dry, the 
7am, the Neat, the Elegant and the Flowery. 



A Diffuse writer expresses his ideas fully. He places them 
i a variety of lights, and gives the reader every possible as- 
stance for understanding them completely. What he wants 
i strength he supplies in copiousness ; and his periods be- 
\[g long, he gives free admittance to ornament of every 
jind. 



I A concise writer expresses his ideas in the fewest words ; 
3 employs none but the most expressive, and lops off all 
.lose which are not a material addition to the sense. What- 
rer ornament he admits, is adopted for the sake of force 
father than of grace. The same thought he never repeats. 
the utmost precision is studied in his sentences ; and they 
J:e designed to express more to the reader's* imagination 
Jian they express. 

Each of these has its peculiar advantages ; and each be- 
>mes faulty when carried to the extreme. 

Discourses which are to be spoken require a more diffuse 
yle than books which are to be read. 

I The style of a feeble writer indicates that he has an indis- 
:nct view of the subject ; unmeaning words and loose epi- 



46 

thets will escape him; his expressions will be vague and gen- 
eral ; his arrangements indistinct ; and our conceptions of 
his meaning will be faint and confused. 

A nervous writer always gives us a strong idea of his 
meaning. His words are always expressive because his mind 
is full of his subject ; every word, every phrase, and every 
figure, render the picture which he would set before us more 
striking and complete. 

A dry style excludes every kind of ornament. Content 
with being understood, it aims not to please either the fancy 
or the ear. 

A plain style rises one degree above a dry one. A writer 
of this character employs very little ornament, but rests al- 
most entirely upon his sense. He is particular to observe 
purity, propriety and precision in his language. 

A neat style is the next in order and advances into the re- 
gion of ornament ; but not of the most sparkling kind. 

A writer of this charactor pays considerable attention to 
the choice of his words and to their graceful collocation. 

His sentences are of a moderate length ; incling rather to 
brevity, than to a swelling structure, and closing with pro- 
priety. 

An elegant style implies a higher degree of ornament than 
a neat one ; possessing all its virtues without any of its 
defects, 

A flowery or florid style implies excess of ornament. 

It is a promising symptom in a young composer, but in 



47 



a more experienced writer, judgment should chasten imagi- 
nation and cause him to reject every ornament which is 
unsuitable and redundant. 



DIRECTIONS FOR FORMING A PROPER STYLE. 



Study clear ideas of the subject concerning which you are 
to write or speak. 

Be acquainted with the views of as many authors on the 
same subject as possible. 

Try and form a correct judgment on the different subjects 
which may come under your consideration. 

Endeavor to be interested in the subject yourself; without 
this your style will be too dry, but when warm and inter- 
ested you will find expression to flow with ease and ra- 
pidity. 

Cultivate a taste for composing. 

Write compositions on a great variety of subjects. 

Arrange your thoughts in as orderly a method as possible , 
] commencing with the principal and most interesting thought, 
in order to secure the attention of your readers. 

Before commencing your composition, draw off a sketch of 
iyour thoughts embracing the different items upon which you 
wish to write ? arranging them No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. This being- 
done you can then arrange the different items according to 
the order in which you choose to place them in the compo- 
, sition. 



48 

Beware of writing in such haste as to acquire a bad style ; 
write therefore with much care. 

You must not however have such anxiety for words as to 
retard the course of your thoughts or cool the heat of your 
imagination. 

This you would naturally do by pausing too long on every 
word you employ. 

The work of correction must be left for a subsequent ex- 
amination. 

Be well acquainted with the style of the best authors. 

This will teach you to form a correct taste, and it will 
also supply you with a full stock of words on every subject. 

Translate some good author into your own words. 

In doing this have some confidence in your own genius. 

Be careful not to adopt the author's peculiar phrases. 

GENERAL RULE. 

Be attentive to your words and expressions and solicitous 
about your matter. 

ELOQUENCE OF POPULAR ASSEMBLIES. 

Eloquence is the art of persuasion. 

The essential properties of eloquence are solid argument, 
a clear method, and a manifested sincerity in the speaker. 

A commanding utterance and graceful style are also indis- 
pensable to true eloquence. 



49 

Its foundation is good sense and solid thought. 

Conviction should be the principal object of the orator. 

He should also study the art of persuasion. 

Conviction affects the understanding, persuasion the will 
and the practice. 

The orator, therefore must not be satisfied with convinc- 
ing ; he must address himself to the passions; he must paint 
to the fancy and touch the heart. 

Eloquence is generally divided into three degrees ; the 
first is such as merely please the hearer, like Panegyrics 
and inaugural addresses : the second is when the speaker 
aims not merely to please but to inform, to instruct, and con- 
vince ; the third is that by which the hearer is not only con- 
vinced but interested and agitated, and carried along with 
the speaker ; the passions rising with his, and sharing all his 
emotions. 

By passion is meant that state of mind which is agitated 
and fired by some object in view. 

The public speaker should be perfectly master of the sub- 
ject upon which he is to speak ; he should have the different 
parts all arranged in his mind, and be well acquainted with 
J the views and sentiments of learned authors on the same 
subject. 

The speaker should always rest upon his matter and argu- 
(ment ; for these will give to his discourse an air of manli- 
Inessand strength, which are powerful instruments of per- 

< suasion. 
t 

Ornament requires only a secondary consideration. 
4 



50 

RULES. 



In public speaking you ought always to be persuaded of 
whatever you recommend to others. 



II. 



The speaker should spare no pains in preparing and ar- 
ranging his matter : the words and expressions should be 
left chiefly for the time of delivery. 

III. 

Short notes of the substance of the speech or discourse 
is very allowable, especially to those who are beginning to 
speak in public. 

Popular assemblies give scope for the most animated man- 
ner of public speaking. 

In a great assembly there are movements communicated 
by mutual sympathy between the orator and his audience, 
and therefore in them passion is very easily excited. 

The expressed warmth of the speaker should always be 
suited to the subject, for it would be ridiculous to introduce 
great vehemence in a subject of small importance, or which 
from its nature should be treated with calmness. 

The speaker should never counterfeit warmth without 

feeling it. 

Rule. — Follow nature ; and never attempt a strain of el- 
oquence which is not prompted by your own genius. 



51 

A public speaker should never lose command of himself, 
lest in so doing he should lose the command of his audience. 

He must not attempt to warm his hearers at once, but 
gradually, and equally with himself. 

A speaker should be so far master of himself as in the 
midst of his warmth to be accurate in his expressions : this 
aids him to a very great degree both to please and persuade. 

The confusion and disorder, which so often attend the 
warmth of uneducated speakers render them ungraceful 
and undignified ; and in a great measure hinder their speech 
or discourse from having the desired effect. 

It is necessary for the speaker carefully to regard what the 
public ear will receive without disgust. 

Imitation of ancient authors will betray a speaker into a 
boldness of manner with which the coolness of modern taste 
would be greatly displeased. 

No one should attempt to speak in public without know- 
ing what would be suitable to his age and character ; to the 
subject and hearers, the place and the occasion. 

A diffuse manner is generally considered as the most pro- 
per for public speakers. 

In this matter however, the speaker must be guided by his 
subject and circumstances. 

It ought never to be forgotten that lest the hearer should 
grow weary with a long discourse, the speaker had better say 
too little than too much. 

By giving too many views of the subject and thereby 



52 

lengthening it, he will surely exhaust the attention of his 
hearers, and leave them languid and fatigued, and with very 
confused views of the subject ; with which they might have 
been otherwise interested and delighted. 

ELOQUENCE OF THE BAK. 



To be successful in speaking in popular assemblies the 
speaker must apply himself to every principle of action in 
human nature ; to the passions, to the heart, and to the un- 
derstanding ; but at the har conviction is the principal 
object. 

As the speaker at the bar addresses himself to one, or at 
most to a few judges, he would subject himself to very great 
ridicule, by attempting that high, vehement, and passionate 
tone, which is suited only to a multitude of people. 

His chief business is to apply the subject in debate to law 
and statute. 

The judicial orations of the ancients must not be consid- 
ered as a model of this kind of speaking ; as eloquence 
rather than jurisprudence was their chief study. 

The grand secret of a lawyers success, is his profound 
knowledge of his profession. 

He may be a splendid speaker, and yet if his knowledge 
of the law be superficial very few will choose to engage him 
in their defence. 

He should be very particular in knowing all the facts and 
circumstances connected with every case entrusted to his 

care. 



53 

He will thus be enabled to fortify the weak parts of his 
client's cause, and he will also be prepared for all the argu- 
ments of his opponent. 

The study of eloquence is still necessary ; for the dryness 
of the subject usually agitated at the bar requires this study 
to command attention, and to prevent what the pleader ad- 
vances from being passed unregarded. 

There is as much difference between impressions made on 
the mind by a cold, dry, and confused speaker, and that made 
by one who pleads the same cause with elegance, order and 
strength, as there is between our conceptions of an object 
when presented in twilight, and when viewed in the efful- 
gence of noon. 



Purity and neatness of expression should be the lawyer's 
grand study. 

, His style should be perspicuous and proper, not needless- 
ly overcharged with the pedantry of law terms, nor 
affectedly avoiding these, when suitable and requisite. 

He should be particular in guarding against verbosity, a 
fault which is so often occasioned by speaking and writing 
hastily. 

He should form himself to the habit of a strong and cor- 
! ect style while he has leisure, that it may become natural to 
him afterwards when compelled by a multiplicity of busi- 
ness to compose with precipitation. 

In speaking at the bar, it should be distinctly shown, first, 
after stating the question, what is admitted : secondly, what 
is denied ; and, thirdly, where the line of division begins 
between the pleader and the adverse party. 



54 

He should be distinct in the order and arrangement of all 
the parts of his pleading. 

A clear method is of the highest consequence in every 
species of oration ; but in those intricate cases which belong- 
to the bar, it is infinitely essential. 

He must be as concise as possible in relating facts ; for 
unnecessary minuteness in relating them overloads the 
memory. 

In argumentation, a more diffuse manner seems requisite 
at the bar than on some other occasions ; for the intricacy 
of law points frequently requires the argument to be expan- 
ded, and placed in different lights, in order to be fully ap- 
prehended. 

The lawyer should always be candid in stating the argu- 
ments of his adversary. If he disguise them, or place them 
in false light, the artifice will soon be discovered ; and the 
judge or judges will conclude, that he either wants discern- 
ment to perceive, or fairness to admit the strength of his 
opponent's reasoning. 

But if he state with accuracy and candor the arguments 
used against him, before he endeavors to combat them, a 
strong prejudice will be created in his favor, he will appear 
to have full confidence in his cause, and the judge or judges 
will be inclined to receive more readily the impressions made 
upon him by a speaker who appears both fair and pene- 
trating. 

Wit is sometimes serviceable at the bar, particularly in a 
lively reply, by which ridicule is thrown on what an adver- 
sary has advanced. None however rises to eminence by be- 
ing a witty lawyer. 






55 

An advocate should be particular in declining a cause 
which is odious and manifestly unjust : and in a doubtful 
case he should lay his chief stress upon those arguments 
which appear to him to be most forcible, but he should al- 
ways keep in view a dignity of character so highly important 
to his profession. 



ELOQUENCE OF THE PULPIT. 

To preach with interest, effect and power, it is necessary 
for the preacher to have a fixed and habitual view of its ob- 
ject ; viz., to persuade men to become good. 

The principal characteristic of pulpit eloquence is gravity 
and warmth. 

It is neither easy nor common to unite these two to- 
gether. 

A proper union of these two, forms that character cf 
preaching which the French call Onction ; that affecting, 
penetrating and interesting manner, which flows from a 
strong sense in the preacher of the importance of the truths 
he delivers, and an earnest desire that they may make full 
impression upon the minds and hearts of his hearers. 

A pulpit discourse requires a strict attention to unity. 

By this is meant that there should be some main point to 
which the whole tenure of the sermon shall refer. 

One object must predominate throughout the whole dis- 
course. 

The unity of a sermon does not exclude the division of it 



56 

into heads, or even the subdivision of these heads : it requires 
only that union and connection be so far preserved, as to 
make the whole concur in some one impression on the 
mind. 

The subject of every sermon should be precise and partic- 
ular ; as unity can never be so perfect in a general, as in a 
particular subject. 

Attention is always commanded by taking some particular 
view of a great subject, and employing on that the whole 
force of argument and eloquence. 

A preacher should be cautious not to exhaust his subject 
since unnecessary and tedious fullness is the very opposite of 
persuasion. 

There are always some things which he may suppose 
the hearers to know, and some which require only brief at- 
tention. 

The grand object of the preacher should be to render his 
instructions interesting. 

He should bring home to their hearts the truths which he 
inculcates ; and make each suppose himself particularly ad- 
dressed. 

He should avoid all intricate reasoning, avoid expressing 
himself in general, speculative propositions ; or laying down 
truths in an abstract, metaphysical manner. 

A discourse ought never to be carried on in the strain of 
one writing an essay, but of one speaking to a multitude. 

The preacher should keep in view the different ages, char- 
acters, and conditions of men ; and he should accommodate 



57 

directions and exhortations to each of these different classes. 

Whenever he advances what touches a man's character, or 
is applicable to his circumstances, he is sure of his attention. 

The study of the human heart is very necessary for the 
preacher. 

To discover a man to himself in a light in which he never 
saw his character before, produces a wonderful effect in 
preaching. 

Sermons which are founded on the illustration of some 
peculiar character, or remarkable piece of history, in the sa- 
cred writings, although difficult in composition, are not only 
the most beautiful, but also the most useful. 

By pursuing this course, the preacher lays open, some of 
the most secret windings of the human heart. 

This is an extensive field but little explored, and possesses 
all the advantages of being curious, new, and highly useful. 

Truth and good sense are the sole basis upon which the 
preacher can build with safety. 

THE PLAN OF A DISCOURSE. 

There are six parts which compose a regular discourse ; 
viz., the exordium or introduction, the statement or the divi- 
sion of the subject, the narration or explication, the reason- 
ing or arguments, the pathetic part and the conclusion. 

It is not necessary that each of these enter into every pub- 
lic discourse ; but they are the constituent "parts of a regular 
oration, and in every discourse some of them must occur. 



58 

Great care should be taken in the introduction, as, at that 
time the minds of the hearers are more easily prejudiced 
for, or against the speaker than at any other time. 

An introduction should be easy and natural, and always 
suggested by the subject. 

The writer should not plan it until he has arranged in his 
own mind the substance of his discourse. 

Correctness of expression should be carefully studied in 
the introduction. 

At the beginning the hearers are more disposed to criti- 
cise than at any other period, their attention is then entirely 
directed to the style and manner of the speaker. 

Modesty is an indispensable characteristic of a good in- 
troduction. 

The modesty of the speaker should appear not only in his 
expression but in his whole manner ; in his looks, in his ges~ 
tures, and even in the tone of his voice. 

Together with modesty, the orator should show a certain 
sense of dignity, arising from a persuasion of the justice or 
importance of his subject. 

The orator should seldom put forth all his strength at the 
beginning ; but it should rise and grow upon his hearers, as 
his discourse advances, 

The introduction is seldom the place for vehemence and 
passion ; for the audience ought to be gradually prepared, 
before the speaker venture on strong and passionate senti- 
ments. 

When the subject is such that the very mention of it na- 



59 

turally awakens some passionate emotion, or when the "un- 
expected presence of some person or object in a popular as- 
sembly inflames the speaker, either of these will justify an 
abrupt and vehement exordium. 

An introduction should be proportioned both in length 
and kind to the discourse which is to follow. 

After the introduction, the proposition or enunciation of 
the subject commonly succeeds. 

This should be expressed without any affectation, in the 
most concise and simple manner. It should also be clear 
and distiuct. 

To this generally succeeds the division, or laying down the 
method of the discourse; in the management of which the 
following rules should be carefully observed. 



The parts into which the subject is divided should be really 
distinct from each other. 

Observe. Should a speaker propose to explain, first the 
advantages of virtue, and next those of justice or temper- 
ance, his divisions would be absurd, because the first head 
plainly comprehends the second. 



II. 



Care should be taken always to follow the order of nature, 
beginning with the most simple points, with such as are most 
easily understood, and necessary to be first discussed, and 



60 



proceeding to those which are built on the former, and which 
are supposed to be known. 



III. 



The members of a division ought to exhaust the subject, 
otherwise the division is incomplete ; the subject is exhibited 
by pieces only, without displaying the whole. 

IV. 

Let preciseness and precision be peculiarly studied. 

Ob. 1. A division always appears to most advantago, when 
the several heads are expressed in the clearest, and most for- 
cible, and fewest words possible. 

2. This never fails to strike the hearers agreeably ; and 
contributes also to make the divisions more easily re- 
membered. 



V. 



Unnecessary multiplication of heads should be cautiously 
avoided. 

Ob. 1. To divide a subject into many minute parts, by 
endless divisions and subdivisions, produces a bad effect in 
speaking. 

2. In a logical treatise this may be proper, but it renders 
an oration hard and dry, and unnecessarily fatigues the 
memory. 



61 

3. A sermon may admit from one to four giand divisions ; 
seldom are more allowable. 

Narration or explication is the next part of the discourse 
in order. 

To be clear and distinct, to be probable, and to be concise, 
are the qualities which critics chiefly require in narration. 

At the bar an act, or single circumstance left in obscurity, 
or misunderstood by the judge, may destroy the effect of all 
the argument and reasoning which the pleader may have 
employed. 

If his narration be improbable, it will be disregarded ; if 
it be tedious and diffuse, it will fatigue and be forgotten. 

To render narration distinct particular attention is requi- 
site in ascertaining clearly the names, dates, places, and ev- 
ery other important circumstance of the facts recounted. 

In order to be probable in narration, it is necessary to ex- 
hibit the character of the persons of whom we speak, and to 
show that their actions proceeded from such motives as are 
natural and likely to gain belief. 

In sermons, explication of the subject to be discoursed on 
occupies the place of narration at the bar, and is to be con- 
ducted in a similar manner. 

It must be concise, clear and distinct ; in a style correct 
and elegant rather than highly adorned. 

To be well heard the preacher must explain the doctrine 
of his text with propriety ; he must give a full and clear ac- 
count of the nature of that virtue or duty which forms the 
subject of discourse. 



62 

He must also consider what light his text will derive from 
other passages of scripture, whether it be a subject nearly 
allied to some other, from which it ought to be distinguished ; 
whether it can be advantageously illustrated by comparing 
or opposing it to some other thing ; by searching into cau- 
ses, and tracing effects ; by pointing out examples, or ap- 
pealing to the hearts of the hearers, that thus a precise and 
circumstantial view may be given of the doctrine inculcated. 

ARGUMENTATIVE PART OF A DISCOURSE. 

Reason and argument constitute the foundation of all 
manly and persuasive eloquence. 

With regard to argument three things require attention ; 
first, invention of them ; secondly, proper disposition and 
arrangement of them ; and thirdly, the disposition of them 
in the most forcible manner. 

Invention is undoubtedly the most material and the basis 
of the rest. 

Arguments should advance in the form of climax, from 
the weakest to the most forcible, 

This method is recommended, when the speaker is 
convinced that his cause is clear and easy to be proved. 

If he distrust his cause, and have but one material argu- 
ment, it is very proper to place this argument in the front; 
so as to prejudice his hearers early in his favor, and thus dis- 
pose them to pay attention to the weaker reasons which he 
may afterwards introduce. 

When amidst a variety of arguments, there is one or two 
more feeble than the rest, Cicero advises to place them in 



63 

the middle, as a situation less conspicuous than either the 
beginning or end of the train of reasoning. 

When arguments are strong, convincing and satisfactory. 
the more they are separated the better ; each can be viewed 
alone, can be amplified and contemplated. 

When the arguments are of a doubtful character, or a 
presumptive nature it is safer to crowd them together, to 
form them into a phalanx, that, though individually weak, 
they may mutually support each other. 

Arguments should never be extended too far, nor multi- 
plied too much ; this diminishes the strength of a cause and 
renders it suspicious. 

A few well chosen arguments can be remembered to ad- 
vantage, while a multiplicity of them burdens the memory 
and is sure to weaken conviction. 

A speaker should never expose a favorable argument in a 
variety of lights for fear of enfeebling the impression which 
it would otherwise have made. 

THE PATHETIC PART OF A DISCOURSE. 

Carefully examine whether the subject admits of the pa- 
! thetic. 

To determine this belongs to good sense and sound judg- 
; inent. 

A great variety of subjects do not admit the pathetic at 
all, and even in those that are susceptible of it, an attempt 
to excite the passions in the wrong place may expose an ora- 
tor to ridicule. 



64 

The speaker must secure the judgment and understand- 
ing of his hearers ; for they must be satisfied there is suf- 
ficient cause for engaging in the cause with zeal and ardor. 

The pathetic is never admitted until argument and rea- 
soning have produced their full effect. 

The speaker should cautiously avoid giving his hearers 
warning even by insinuation, that he intends to excite their 
passions. 

To every emotion and passion, nature has adapted certain 
corresponding objects, and without setting these before the 
mind, it is impossible for an orator to excite that emotion. 

We are warmed with gratitude, we are touched with com- 
passion, not when a speaker shows us that these are noble 
dispositions, and that it is our duty to feel them ; nor when 
he exclaims against us for our indifference and coldness, but 
when he paints them before the mind in all their native love- 
liness and beauty. 

The basis of all successful execution in pathetic oratory is 
to paint the object of that passion which we desire to raise 
in the most natural and striking manner. 

The language of passion is always unaffected and simple, 

In painting to the imagination you may be cool and delib- 
erate, but in painting to the heart you must be rapid and 
ardent. 

All digressions should be avoided which may interrupt or 
turn aside the swell of passion. 

Comparisons are always dangerous and highly improper 
i n the midst of the pathetic. 



65 

As violent emotions cannot be lasting so the pathetic should 
not be overlengthened. 

The speaker must also be careful to know what the hear- 
ers will bear ; for he who attempts to carry them farther in 
passion than they will follow him frustrates his purpose, and 
instead of warming them he takes the sure means of freezing 
them completely. 

THE PERORATION. 



A few words is always sufficient in the conclusion of a 
discourse. 

Sometimes the whole pathetic part comes in most proper- 
ly at the peroration. 

When the discourse has been altogether argumentative, it 
is proper to conclude by summing up the arguments, pla- 
cing them in one view, and leaving the impression of them 
full and strong upon the minds of the hearers. 

Rule. — Place that last upon which you choose to rest the 
strength of your cause. 

In every kind of public speaking, it is important to hit 
the precise time of concluding. 

Rule. — Do not end abruptly nor unexpectedly. Do not 
disappoint the expectation of the hearers, when they look for 
the end of the discourse. 

The speaker should always close with dignity and spirit, 
that the minds of the hearers may be left warm, and that 
5 



66 

they may depart with a favorable impression of the subject 
and of himself. 



ON DELIVERY. 



The orator should endeavor to speak so as to be fully and 
easily understood. 

He should express himself with such grace and energy as 
to please and to move his hearers. 

To be fully and easily understood, the chief requisites are, 
a due degree of loudness of voice, distinctness, slowness and 
propriety of pronunciation. 

The most important thing is to be heard, the speaker must 
therefore, endeavor to fill with his voice the space occupied 
by the assembly. 

Much depends upon the proper pitch and management of 
the voice. 

Every man has three pitches in his voice, the high, the 
middle, and the low. 

The high is used in calling aloud to some one at a distance ; 
the low approaches to a whisper ; the middle is that which 
is employed in common conversation, and which should gen- 
erally be used in public speaking. 

The highest pitch is not necessary to be well heard by a 
great assembly. 

The voice may be rendered louder without altering the 
key ; and the speaker will always be able to give the most 



67 

persevering force of sound, in that pitch of voice to which in 
conversation he is accustomed. 

If he begin higher than this, he will fatigue himself and 
speak with pain ; and thereby be heard with pain by his au- 
dience. 

A greater quantity of voice should never be uttered, than 
can be afforded without pain, and without any extraordinary 
effort. 

Eule. — Let the speaker fix his eye on some of the most 
distant persons in the congregation or assembly, and imagine 
himself speaking to them. 

The reason of the above rule is ; we naturally and me- 
chanically utter our words with such strength, as to be heard 
by one to whom we address ourselves, provided he be within 
the reach of our voice. 

Speaking too loudly is very offensive and exceedingly dis- 
gusting. 

The ear is wounded when the voice comes upon it in 
rumbling indistinct masses. 

Assent is never obtained by vehemence and force of 
sound. 

Distinctness of articulation is what is essentially necessary 
rather than quantity of sound. 

With distinct articulation a man of a weak voice will make 
it extend further than the strongest voice can reach with- 
out it. 

The speaker must give every sound its due proportion, 



68 

and make every syllable and even every letter to be heard 
distinctly. 

Rapidity of pronunciation must be carefully avoided. 

There is a happy medium between this and a lifeless 
drawling method, which last method should be carefully 
avoided. 

Slowness of pronunciation and clearness of articulation 
cannot be too industriously studied by the public speaker. 

Such pronunciation gives weight and dignity to a discourse, 
and assists the voice by pauses and rests, so very necessary 
to a graceful delivery. 

A hurried manner excites that flutter of spirit, which is 
the greatest enemy to all right execution in oratory. 

Eule — Let every word receive that sound which the most 
polite usage has appropriated to it, and let the broad and 
vulgar pronunciation be cautiously avoided. 

Dissyllables, trissylables and polysyllables have always one 
accented syllable, let the speaker mark that syllable by a 
stronger percussion, and pass more slightly over the rest. 

• The same accent should be given to every word in public 
speaking and in common discourse. 

The higher parts of delivery are comprehended under 
four heads : viz., emphasis, pauses, tones, and gestures 






By emphasis is meant a fuller and stronger sound of voice, 
by which we distinguish between the accented syllable 
some word, on which we intend to lay particular stress. 



3e > 
of 



Rule. — Study to acquire a just conception of the force 
and spirit of those sentiments which you are about to 
deliver. 

Emphatical words are not to be multiplied too much, but 
are to be used with prudent reserve. 

Pauses are of two kinds : first, emphatical pauses ; and 
secondly, such as mark the distinction of sense. 

An emphatical pause is designed to fix the hearer's atten- 
tion on something which has been just said. 

Such pauses are subject to the same rules of emphasis, and 
are not to be too often repeated. 

The principal use of pauses is, to mark the division of 
the sense, and at the same time permit the speaker to 
draw his breath ; and the proper management of such pau- 
ses is one of the nicest and most difficult articles in de- 
livery. 

It is peculiarly necessary for the speaker to have a proper 
command of breath. 

He should always provide a full supply of breath for what- 
ever he is to utter. 

The breath must be gathered at the intervals of a period 
as well as at the end of it. 

Pauses in public discourse must be formed upon the man- 
ner in which we express ourselves in sensible conversation, 
and not upon the stiff, artificial manner which we acquire 
from reading books, according to common punctuation. 

In his tones the speaker is to regulate himself by the man- 



70 

ner in which he speaks when engaged in earnest discourse' 
with others. 

Tones of pronunciation are different from those of em- 
phasis and pauses. 

They consist in the modulation of the voice ; the notes or 
variations of sound which are employed in public speaking. 

Rule. — Form your tones of public speaking upon those 
of animated conversation. 

When we speak upon a subject which deeply interests us, 
we naturally and mechanically speak in an eloquent, and per- 
suasive tone and manner. 

The speaker should never lay aside in the public assembly, 
that voice with which he expresses himself in private. 

Nature will guide him so as to make the most forcible and 
pleasing impressions ; but affectation is contemptibly dis- 
gusting. 



ON GESTURE. 

Rule. — Attend to the looks and gestures in which earn- 
estness, indignation, compassion, or any other emotion dis- 
covers itself to the most advantage in the common discourses 
of men, and let these be your model. 

A public speaker however must adopt that manner most 
peculiar to himself, else it will appear stiff and forced. 

The study of action consists chiefly in guarding against 



71 

any disagreeable motion, and in learning to perform such 
motions as are natural in the most graceful manner. 

Every speaker should study to preserve as much dignity 
as possible in the attitude of his body. 

His position should be erect and firm, that he may have 
the fullest and freest command of all his motions. 

His countenance should correspond with the nature of his 
discourse. 

In every kind of discourse a serious and manly look is to 
be maintained. 

The eyes should never be fixed entirely on one object, but 
they should move easily around the audience. 

Motion made with the hands should be the principal part 
of gesture ; and it is more natural to use the right hand than 
the left. 

Warm emotions require the exercise of both hands ; but 
all motions should be easy and unrestrained. 

Motions made with the hands should proceed from the 
shoulders rather than from the elbow, to prevent narrow and 
confined motions which are always ungraceful. 

Perpendicular movements are to be avoided. 

Oblique motions are most pleasing and graceful. 

Sudden and rapid motions are not good. 

Affectation is the destruction of good delivery ; whatever 
is natural is most likely to please because it shows the man, 
and has the appearance of proceeding from the heart. 



72 
ON MEANS OF IMPROVING IN ELOQUENCE. 






To improve in eloquence the speaker should endeavor to 
improve and refine his moral feelings. 

He should also cultivate habits of the several virtues. 

A true orator must possess generous sentiments, warm 
feelings, and a mind turned towards admiration of those 
great and high objects, which men are by nature formed to 
venerate. 

Connected with manly virtues, he should possess strong 
and tender sensibility to all the injuries, distresses, and sor- 
rows of his fellow creatures. 

A fund of knowledge is also indispensable to true oratory. 

A pleader must make himself thoroughly acquainted with 
law ; he must possess all that learning and experience which 
can be useful in supporting a cause or convincing a judge. 

A preacher must apply himself closely to the study of di- 
vinity, of practical religion, of morals, and of human nature ; 
that he may be rich in all topics of instruction and per- 
suasion. 

He who wishes to excel in any council or assembly should 
be thoroughly acquainted with the business that belongs to 
such assembly ; and should attend with accuracy to all the 
facts which may be the subject of question or deliberation. 

Beside the knowledge peculiar to his profession the pub- 
lic speaker should be acquainted with the general circle of 
polite literature. 



73 

He should be acquainted with poetry for the purpose of 
embellishing his style, and for, suggesting lively images or 
pleasing illusions. 

He should be acquainted with history, because the know- 
ledge of facts, of eminent characters, and of the course of 
human affairs finds place on many occasions. 

Deficiency of knowledge on general subjects will expose a 
public speaker to many disadvantages ; and it will give his 
rival, who may be better qualified, a decided superiority over 
him. 

Without application and industry it is impossible for a 
person to excel in eloquence. 

No one ever became a distinguished pleader, or preacher, 
or speaker, in any assembly without previous labor and ap- 
plication. 

The student must beware of indolence and dissipation. 

He who is destined to excel in any art, will be distinguished 
by enthusiasm for that art ; which, firing his mind with the 
object in view, will dispose him to relish every necessary 
labor. 

Attention to the best models contributes greatly to im- 
provement in the arts of speaking and writing with pro- 
priety. 

No genius is so original, as not to receive improvement 
from examples in style, composition, and delivery. 

In imitating style a difference is to be observed between 
spoken and written discourses ; in the latter we expect cor- 
rectness and precision. 



74 

Speaking allows a more easy, copious style, less confined ; 
repetitions may sometimes be requisite ; the same thought 
must often be placed in different points of view ; since the 
hearers can catch it only from the mouth of the speaker. 

Exercise, both in composing and speaking, is a necessary 
means of improvement. 

That kind of composition is most useful, which is con- 
nected with the profession to which the person intends to 
devote himself. 

He who wishes to write or speak correctly, should, in the 
most- trivial kind of composition, in writing a letter, or even 
in common conversation, study to express himself .with 
propriety. 

Exercises in speaking is only important when under pro- 
per regulations. 

Many debating societies in which people are brought to- 
gether from low stations, who know nothing of the Rules of 
public speaking but merely assemble to exhibit their talent, 
are not only useless but highly injurious. 

Even in those well regulated societies, the student of ora- 
tory should never accustom himself to speak at random on 
any subject; he shonld never speak without meditation, 
and he should be very particular in the choice of his 
subjects. 

A student of oratory should never attempt to speak upon 
a subject upon which he is ignorant, and when speaking, he 
should keep good sense and persuasion in view rather than 
a show of unmeaning eloquence. 



75 

Aristotle was the first who took Rhetoric from the soph- 
ists and founded it on reason and solid sense. 

His treatise on Rhetoric is a very valuable composition. 

The Greek Rhetoricians who succeeded him improved on 
his foundation. 

Two of their works still remain, Demetrius Phalereus, and 
Dionysius of Halitences, who both wrote on the construc- 
tion of sentences and who deserve to be consulted. 

Cicero and Quintilian were both able writers upon this 
subject and their works are not only instructive but highly 
useful. 



ON HISTORY. 



History is a connected recital of past or present events. 

Its office is to trace the progress of man from the savage 
state, and through the several degrees of civilization, to the 
nearest perfection of which social institutions are capable. 

History serves to amuse the imagination and interest the 
passions. 

It improves the understanding, and tends to strengthen 
the sentiments of virtue. 

Oral tradition was, in early times, the only vehicle of his-^ 
torical knowledge : hence to secure the remembrance of im- 
portant facts, as compacts, treaties, &c, they were recited in 
the assemblies of the people. 



76 

Historical poems was another method of transmitting the 
knowledge of events. 

The next method of preserving traditions was by visible 
monuments, erected upon occasion of any remarkable event: 
of this nature was the heap of stones raised by Jacob and 
Laban as a memorial of their mutual reconciliation. 

Coins, medals, and inscriptions, may be regarded as por- 
table, historical monuments. 

A general and accurate knowledge of Geography and 
Chronology is necessary in the study of history. 

A knowledge of the situation and relative magnitude of 
the several countries of the earth assists and affords clear 
and distinct ideas of the events : and a general comprehen- 
sion of the current of time enables a person distinctly to 
trace their dependence on each other. 

A good historian should have a general acquaintance with 
the sciences, and with the principles which actuate human 
nature, as it will enable him to judge of the possibility and 
probability of certain facts, and be a guide in estimating the 
consistency of human characters, and with what is, or is not, 
within the powers of human nature. 

History, with regard to the nature of its subjects, may be 
divided into two classes : general and particular ; and with 
respect to time into two more : ancient and modern. 

i 

General history relates to nations and to every thing of a 
public nature connected with them : the subject of particu- 
lar history refers to individual countries, or particular 
periods. 

Ancient history commences with the creation of the world, 



77 

as given by Moses, and extends to the reign of Charlemagne 
A. D., 800. 

Modern history is dated from that period and extends to 
our own times. 

General history is divided into civil and ecclesiastical : the 
first contains the history of mankind in their various rela- 
tions to one another : the second considers them as acting 
or pretending to act in obedience to what they believe to be 
the will of God. 

History resolves itself into certain periods at each of which 
a great revolution took place, either with regard to the whole 
world, or a very considerable part of it. 

The first general period refers to transactions from the 
creation of the world to the flood, which are recorded in the 
first six chapters of the Bible. 

In that period men were not in a savage state : they had 
made some progress in the mechanical arts; they had 
invented music, and they found out the method of working 
metals. 

The second period of history commences at the deluge, 
about 1656 after the creation, and it extends to the beginning 
of profane history. 

It includes the attempt ^t building the tower of Babel ; 
the history of Noah's sons ; the foundation of the kingdom 
of Babylonia and Assyria ; the migration and history of the 
Israelites ; the history of the Greeks and their expedition 
against Troy : the founding of Carthage and of Eome. 

The third begins with the 28th Olympiad, about the year 



78 

B. C. 668 ; and it includes the destruction of the kingdom 
of Assyria by theMedes and Babylonians, and the overthrow 
of the kingdom of Judea by Nebuchadnezzar King of 
Babylon. 

The fourth period of history extends only to the conquest 
of Babylon by Cyrus, a period of 31 years, which event 
took place in the year B. C. 538. 

During the fifth period, the Jews under Cyrus, obtained 
leave to return to their own country, rebuild their temple, 
and re-establish their own worship : it includes likewise the 
reign of Alexander the great, and the overthrow of the Per- 
sian Empire. 

The sixth period includes the rise and progress of the four 
empires which had arisen out of the vast empire of Alex- 
ander, and the history of the exploits of the Romans and 
Carthaginians till the destruction of Carthage about a cen- 
tury and a half prior to the birth of Christ. 

The seventh period is occupied in the conquests of the 
Romans, until their empire had attained its greatest mag- 
nitude, and until the time when an end was put to the Ro- 
man Republic ; it includes also the conquests of Britain by 
Claudius, and the destruction of Jerusalem by Vespasian. 
It ends with the death of Trajan. 

The eighth period extends fro^n the death of Trajan to the 
division of the empire under Constantino. 

The ninth period exhibits the decline and miserable end of 
the western part of the Roman empire : it details important 
revolutions that occurred in Britain, Italy, France, and 
Spain. 



79 

During this period Africa had changed its masters three 
times : the Vandals had expelled the Romans, and erected 
an independent kingdom which was at length overturned by 
the Emperors of Constantinople, and from them it was taken 
by the Goths, A. D. 620. 

The tenth period is dated from the flight of Mahomet in 
the year 622 : it includes the rise, progress, and victories of 
the conqueror, and the fall of his empire : it relates to the 
conquests of the Turks and Saracens, and extends to the 
time of the Crusades. 

The eleventh period of history commences with the cru- 
sades, and includes all the space intervening from between 
that time and the present. 



ON HISTORICAL WRITING. 

The great requisites in a historian are, impartiality, fidelity, 
and accuracy. 

His first object should be to give his subject all possible 
unity. 

The portions of history should be connected by some 
uniting principle, which will produce on the mind something 
J that is one. 

A historian should trace actions and events to their 
' sources. 

He should be well acquainted with human nature and with 
| politics. 

His skill in the former will enable him to describe the 



80 

characters of individuals ; and his knowledge of the latter 
to account for the revolutions of government, and the opera- 
tion of political causes on public affairs. 

Large experience, of the different modes of government 
has improved the modern historian, beyond the historian of 
antiquity. 

It is in the form of narrative only, that the historian is to 
impart political knowledge ; for formal discussions expose 
him to suspicion of being willing to accommodate his facts 
to his theory. 

Reflections, whether moral, political, or philosophical, may 
be insinuated in the body of the narrative. 

Clearness, order and connection are primary virtues in 
historical narration. 

This is attained when the historian is complete master of 
his subject, when he can see the whole at one view ; and 
comprehend the dependence of all its parts. 

History should be conspicuous for gravity. 

There should be nothing mean or vulgar in the style ; no 
quaintness, no smartness, no affectation, no wit. 

A history should also be interesting ; and this is the qual- 
ity which distinguishes a writer of genius and eloquence. 

To be interesting, a historian must preserve a medium be- 
tween rapid recital, and prolix detail. 

He should be careful in making a proper selection of cir- 
cumstances. 



81 

This gives life, body and coloring, to his narration, and 
constitutes what is termed historical painting. 

In picteresque description, the ancients eminently excel : 
for example the works of Thucydides, Liyy, Sallust, and 
Tacitus are read with pleasure and delight. 

Sound morality should always reign in history. 

The historian should be always on the side of virtue, not 
by delivering moral instruction in a formal manner, but 
merely by exciting indignation against the designing and 
vicious ; by appeals to the passions, he will not only improve 
his reader, but take away from the natural coolness of his- 
torical narration. 

The inferior kinds of historical composition are annals, 
memoirs and lives. 



ON LOGIC. 



In discourses written or spoken the writer or speaker 
should possess Logic as a philosopher, and employ it as an 
orator. 

He should dispose his arguments in a natural and lucid 
manner, and express them in such a style as to give them 
full force. 

Logic is the art of reasoning ; and is intended to guide 
and assist the intellectual powers in the investigation of 
truth, and in communicating it to others. 

The operations of the mind in acquiring and communica- 
6 



82 

ting knowledge are, Perception, Judgment, Reasoning and 
Disposition ; and into these parts logic is divided. 

Perception, or conception, is the attention which the mind 
gives to impressions made upon it, and the results of per- 
ception are sensations and ideas. 

Judgment is the operation of the mind by which we join 
two or more ideas together by an affirmation or negation. 

Judgment expressed in words is called an enunciation, and 
more frequently a proposition. 

In reasoning we determine the relation between two ideas, 
by comparing them with a third idea, called the middle 
term. 

The result of reasoning is an inference ; and the expres- 
sion of an act of reasoning is called a syllogism. 

Example. A Creator is to be worshipped. God is a 
Creator; Therefore God is to be worshipped. This is a syl- 
logism : and the inference is that God is to be worshipped. 

A proposition is the affirmation or negation of one term 
about another ; and is either simple or compound. 

A simple proposition is that which cannot be resolved into 
several : as Man is an animal. 

A compound proposition is that which can be resolved in- 
to several. 

A simple proposition consists of two parts, the subject and 
predicate. 

Tho subject is that of which something is affirmed or 



83 

denied : the, predicate, that which is affirmed or denied of 
the subject. 

The predicate consists of two parts, the copula and res 
copulata. 

Example In the proposition, Man is an animal, the term 
man is the subject, is the copula, and animal the res copulata. 

The res copulata alone, without the copula, is commonly 
called the predicate, and by some the attribute. 

A proposition consists necessarily of three parts : the 
thing about which something is asserted, called the subject : 
the thing which is asserted about it, called the predicate : and 
the particles expressing the nature of the assertion which is 
made. 

The predicate and particles expressive of the nature of 
the assertion are sometimes taken collectively, and called the 
predicate. 

Attribute should only be applied to the predicate when it 
is an adjective, as Man is rational. 

Logicians acknowledge no verb in a proposition but the 
verb substantive ; and if any other occur, they resolve it into 
the verb substantive or participial noun : as in the proposi- 
tion, A man runs, the predicate runs is resolved into — a run- 
ning thing. 

Simple propositions are divided into modal and pure. 

A modal proposition is that in which there occurs one of 



84 

the four modes — it is necessary, impossible, possible, con- 
tingent. 

A pure proposition is that in which none of them occurs. 

A modal proposition consists of the dictum and modus. 
Thus in the proposition, it is necessary that a man should be 
an animal ; — that a man should be an animal is the dictum, 
and necessary is the modus. 

The dictum is the subject, and the modus is the predicate : 
for the modus is connected with the copula, and what is so 
connected is the predicate. The proposition therefore ought 
to be expressed — that a man should be an animal is necessary. 

Propositions may also be divided into affirmative and neg- 
ative : the affirmative connects the predicate with the sub- 
ject ; as " gold is heavy 7 : the negative separates the predi- 
cate from the subject ; as " man is not perfect" 

Propositions are universal and particular : in a universal 
proposition the predicate extends to the whole subject; as 
" all men are mortal." 

The signs of a universal proposition are usually all, every, 
no, none. 

In a particular proposition the predicate is limited to a 
part of the subject : as, " some people are good." 

The signs of a particular proposition are, some, many, 
few &e. 

Propositions are either true or false : a true proposition 
unites ideas that agree, and separates those that disagree; 
as "God is good." 



85 

A false proposition affirms an agreement between ideas 
that disagree, and a disagreement between those which agree : 
as " A good king oppresses his subjects." " Virtue is not 
the road to happiness-" 

A demonstrable proposition is one that may be proved by 
a train of reasoning, called demonstration. 

Demonstration is a succession of connected propositions, 
beginning with self evident, and advancing to remoter truths : 
such is mathematical demonstration, which begins with defi- 
nitions : from these it advances to axioms, or self evident 
propositions ; and from thence to more remote truths. 

Corrolaries are inferences deduced from truths already 
demonstrated. 



ON SYLLOGISM. 



A syllogism is the expression of an act of reasoning, and 
includes three distinct propositions. 

Example 1. — 1. Whatever is useful is honorable. 2. In- 
dustry is useful : 3. Therefore industry is honorable. 

Ex. 2. — 1. Every creature possessed of reason is bound 
to cultivate his mind. 2. Man is possessed of reason : 3. 
Therefore man is bound to cultivate his mind. 

In syllogism the proposition containing the inference is 
called the conclusion ; the two preceding positions are the 
premises. 

Of the two premises, that is called the major proposition 
in which the greater extreme is compared with the middle 



86 

term : the minor proposition is that in which the less ex- 
treme is compared with it. 

Example. — 1. Truth is venerable. 2, Christianity is 
truth ; 3. Therefore Christianity is venerable. 

"Christianity," "Venerable" and "Truth" are in the 
above example the three terms of the syllogism. " Chris- 
tianity" and " Venerable" are the extremes, and " Truth" 
is the middle term. " Venerable" is the major and " Chris- 
tianity" is the minor term. " Truth is venerable." " Chris- 
tianity is truth," are the premises ; therefore " Christianity 
is venerable," is the conclusion. " Truth is venerable," is 
the major proposition : " Christianity is truth," is the minor 
proposition. 

Syllogisms may be almost indefinitely varied, and each 
variety has obtained a distinct name. 

A dilemma is a syllogism in which the consequent of a 
major is a disjunctive proposition, which is taken away in the 
minor : or it is an argument by which we endeavor to prove 
the absurdity or falsehood of some assertion. 

Ex. — 1. If God did not create the world perfect in its 
kind, it mtist have been from want of inclination or power. 
2, But it could not have been from want of inclination or 
from want of power. 3. Therefore he created the world 
perfect in its kind. 

Analogy is an argument from proportionable causes to 
proportionable effects : and from similarity of circumstances 
to similarity of consequences. 

Ex. — 1. All matter with which we are acqainted gravitates ; 
2. Therefore gravitation is a universal property of matter. 



87 



A sophism is a false syllogism not obviously apparent. 

When a proposition is proved which has no necessary con- 
nection with the question : this is called ignorantio clenchi. 

Petitio principii or begging the question is another kind 
of sophism, and consists of taking for granted what ought to 
be proved. 

Arguing in a circle, is to prove the premises by the con- 
clusion, and the conclusion by the premises. 



QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 



LESSON I. 

1. What is Rhetoric ? 2. What is language .? 3. How is 
it to be regarded ? 4. What is spoken language ? 5. What 
written ? 6. What was the first attempt towards writing ? 
7. Who brought letters first into Greece ? 8. Of how many 
letters did his alphabet consist ? 9. How was writing first 
exhibited ? 

LESSON II. 

1. What is taste? 2. Is it common to all? 3. How is 
this known ? 4. Do all persons possess taste alike ? 5. To 
what is this difference to be ascribed? 6. How does taste 
appear to be an improvable faculty ? 7. Repeat the gener- 
al rule. 8. What are essential in the decisions of taste? 
9. Of what is a good taste compounded ? 



88 

LESSON III. 

1. What is criticism ? 2. What is its design ? 3. What 
is genius ? 4. How may it be improved ? 5. To excel in 
this talent what must the student do ? 6. What is said of 
a person indifferently inclined towards the several profes- 
sions ? 

LESSSON IV. 

1. What is style ? 2. Of what is it a picture ? 3. What 
are the qualities of a good style ? 4. What does perspicu- 
ity signify ? 5. What does it require ? 6. With respect to 
words and phrases, how many properties does perspicuity 
require ? 7. Name them. 8. To what does purity relate ? 
9. Propriety ? 10. What is precision? 11. Name the faults 
possible to written composition. 12. What is opposed to 
these three faults ? 13. By what is the ornament of style 
known ? 

LESSON V. 

1. What is a sentence ? 2. Name the different kinds of 
sentences. 3. What is a simple sentence ? 4. What is a 
compound sentence ? 5. What are the principal parts of a 
sentence ? 6. What are the other parts usually called ? 7. 
What is a clause or member ? 

LESSON VI. 

1. What is punctuation ? 2. Name the principal points 
or marks. 3. Repeat Rule 1st, Rule 2nd, Rule 3rd, 4th, 5th, 
6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 
17th. 

LESSON VII. 

Repeat Rule 1st for written composition &c, 2nd, 3rd,, 
4th. 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 
16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, 24th, 25th. 
Repeat the 1st Example corrected according to Rule 2nd. 
Thee must have been idle. Not proper because the objective 



pronoun thee is made the subject of the verb must have been. 
But according to Rule 2nd, " A noun or a pronoun which is 
the subject of the verb must be in the Nominative case," 
Therefore thee should be thou : Thus, Thou must have been 
idle. 

Note. Let the pupil correct the whole of the Examples 
according to this manner. 

LESSON VIII. 

1. What is indispensable to written composition and pub- 
lic speaking ? 2. What are the properties of a perfect sen- 
tence ? 3. What does clearness imply ? 4. What is said of 
the pronouns who, which, what, and that ? 5. What does the 
unity of a sentence imply ? 6. What is meant by the 
strength of a sentence ? 

LESSON ON THE PERORATION. 

1. What is sufficient in the conclusion? 2. What is said of 
the pathetic part ? 3. When the discourse has been alto- 
gether argumentative how must it be concluded ? 4. Re- 
peat the rule. 5. What is important in every kind of public 
speaking ? 6. Repeat the rule. 7. How should the speak- 
er always close ? 8. Why ? 

LESSON ON DELIVERY. 

1. How should the orator endeavor to speak? 2. To be un- 
derstood what are the chief requisites ? 3. What is the most 
important thing ? 4. Mention the three pitches of the hu- 
man voice. 5. How is each used ? 6. Is the highest pitch 
1 necessary to be well heard ? 7. In what pitch will the speak- 
er be enabled to give the most persevering force of sound ? 
8. What will be the consequence if he begin higher than 
this ? 9. What is said about uttering a greater quantity of 
voice ? 10. Repeat the rule. 11. What reason is given ? 
12. What is very offensive and disgusting ? 13. When is 
the ear wounded ? 14. What is essentially necessary rather 
than quantity of sound? 15. Repeat the additional remark. 
16. What must the speaker give to every sound ? 17. What 
must be carefully avoided ? 18. Repeat the additional re- 
mark. 19. What ought to be industriously studied by every 



i 



90 

speaker? 20. What is said of such pronunciation ? 21. What 
is said of a hurried manner? 22. Repeat the rule. 23. What 
is said of dissyllables, trissyllables and polysyllables ? 
24. What accent should be given to every word in public 
speaking ? 25. Name the heads of the higher parts of de- 
livery ? 26. What is meant by Emphasis. 27. Repeat the 
general rule. 28. How are emphatical words to be used ? 
29. Name the two kinds of pauses. 30. What is said of the 
emphatical pause ? 31. To what rules are such pauses sub- 
ject? 32. What is said of the use and management of pauses? 
33. What three directions are given the public speaker in 
breathing ? 34. How ought pauses in public speaking to be 
formed ? 35. How is the speaker to regulate his tones ? 
36. In what do tones consist? 37. Repeat the rule? 38. When 
do men naturally and mechanically speak in an eloquent 
manner ? 39. What should the speaker do with regard to 
his voice in a public assembly ? 40. What is nature said to 
do for the speaker ? 41. What is contemptibly disgusting ? 

LESSON ON GESTURE. 

1. Repeat the general rule on gesture. 2. What manner 
must the public speaker adopt ? 3. In what consists the stu- 
dy of action ? 4. What should every speaker study to pre- 
serve ? 5. What should be his position ? 6. What is said of the 
speaker's countenance ? 7. What is to be maintained in 
every kind of discourse ? 8. What is said of the eyes of the 
speaker ? What should be the principal part of his gesture? 
10. What kind of emotions require the exercise of both 
hands ? 11. What is said of all motions ? 12. What is to 
be done to prevent narrow and confined motions? 13. What 
movements are to be avoided ? 14. What motions are most 
pleasing and graceful ? 15. What motions are not good ? 
16. What is the destruction of good delivery ? 

LESSON ON IMPROVING IN ELOQUENCE. 

1. To improve in eloquence what should the speaker do ? 
2. What else? 3. What must a true orator possess? 4, What 
else beside manly virtues ! 5. What is also indispensable ? 
6. With what must a pleader be acquainted 1 7. To what 
must the preacher apply himself? 8. To excel in any coun- 
cil or assembly with what should the speaker be acquainted? 



91 

6. What else beside the knowledge of his profession? 10. Why 
should he be acquainted with poetry ? 11. Why with histo- 
ry ? 12. What would give his rival a decided superiority 
over him'? 13. What is indispensible to excel in eloquence I 
14. Of what must the student beware ? 15. What is neces- 
sary to excel in 'any art ? 16. What is said of attention to 
the best models ? 17. What is said about improvement from 
examples in style, &c ? 18, In imitating style what dif- 
ference is to be observed ? 19. What is said of speaking ? 
20. What is a necessary means of improvement ? 21. What 
compositon is the most useful ? 22. What should he do who 
wishes to speak and write correctly ? 23. What is said of ex- 
ercises in speaking ? 24. What of debating societies ? 

25. What should a student of oratory never attempt to do 1 

26. What is said of Aristotle ? 27. Who improved on his 
foundation ? 28. What two works are mentioned, and what 
is said of them ? 29. What is said of Cicero and Quintilian? 

LESSON ON HISTORY. 

1. What is history? 2. What is its office? 3. What 
does history serve to do ? 4. What else ? 5. What was the 
vehicle of historical knowledge in olden times ? 6. What 
other method ? 7. What the next method ? 8. What are 
to be regarded as portable, historical monuments ? 9. What 
is necessary to the study of history ? 10. What else is of 
importance? 11. With what should a good historian be ac- 
quainted ? 12. Name the two classes of history. 13. What 
is said of general and particular history? 14. When does 
ancient history commence? 15. When does modern? 
16. How is general history divided ? 17. Into what does his- 
tory resolve itself ? 18. To what does the first period refer ? 
19. Were men then in a savage state ? 20. Repeat what is 
said of the second period ? 21. What does this include ? 
22. What is said of the third ? 23. Of the fourth? 24. Of 
the fifth ? 25. Of the sixth ? 26. Of the seventh ? 27. Of the 
eighth ? 28. Of the ninth ? 29. What is further remarked 
concerning the ninth period ? 30. What is said of the tenth? 
31. Of the eleventh? 

LESSON ON HISTORICAL WRITING. 

1, What are the great requisites in a historian ? 2. What 



92 

should be his first objects 3. By what should his portions | 
of history be connected 1 4. To what should he trace ac- 
tions and events % 5. With what should he be well acquaint- 
ed 1 6. What is said of this 1 7. What has improved the 
modern historian % 8. How is the historian to impart politi- 
cal knowledge 1 9. What is said of reflection, moral, politi- 
cal or philosophical % 10. What are primary virtues in his- 
torical narration 1 11. When is this attained 1 12. For 
what should history be conspicuous % 13. What is said about 
the historian's style % 14. What further remark is made 
about history 1 15. To be interesting what must a historian 
do 1 16. Of what should he be careful 1 

LESSON IX. 

1. Repeat Rule 1st for Composition. 2. Repeat Rule 2nd. 
3. Repeat the observations. 4. Repeat Rule 3rd. 5. Rule 
4th. 6. Rule 5th. 7. Repeat the first observation to Rule 
5th. 8. The 2nd. 9. The 3rd. 10. Repeat Rule 6th. 
11. Repeat the observation. 12. Rule 7th. 13. Repeat 
observation 1st to Rule 7th. 14. Ob. 2nd. 15. Repeat 
Rule 8th. 16. Ob. 1st to Rule 8th. 17. Ob. 2nd. 18. Re- 
peat Rule 9th. 19. Ob. 1st to Rule 9th, 20. Ob 2nd. I 
21. Ob. 3rd. 22. Ob, 4th. 23. Ob. 5th. 24. Repeat Rule i 
10th. 25. Repeat Ob. 1st to Rule 10th. 26. Ob. 2nd. 
27. Repeat Rule 11th. 28. Repeat the observation. 29. Re- 
peat Rule 12fch. 30. Repeat the observation. 31. Rule 13th. 
32. Repeat the observation. 33. Rule 14th. 34. Ob. 1st. 
35. Ob. 2nd. 36. Ob. 3rd. 37. Ob. 4th. 38. Ob. 5th. 

LESSON X.— ON HARMONY. 

1. Upon what does the beauty of musical construction de- 
pend ? 2. What words are most pleasing to the ear ? 
3. What is said of long words ? 4. What is always grateful 
to the ear ? 5. Repeat the Rule. 6. What is said of sound 
when we aim at dignity or elevation ? 7, What is said of 
words consisting of short syllables ? 8. What should be 
done to render discourse sprightly and magnificent ? 9. 
With what have sounds an intimate correspondence ? 

LESSON XL— ON FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
1. How may figures be regarded? 2. How are figures 



divided ? 3. What are figures of words commonly called ? 
4. What is said of fig-uses of thought ? 5. How is language 
said to be enriched ? 6. What do figures furnish ? 7* What 
is said of tropes? 8. What is a synecdoche ? 

LESSON XII.— ON METAPHORS. 

1. Upon what is metaphor entirely founded? 2. It is 
nearly allied to what ? 3. Give the example. 4. What is 
further said of metaphor ? 5. Repeat Rule 1st. 6. Repeat 
Ob. 1st. 7. Ob. 2nd. 8. Rule 2nd. 9. Ob. 1st. 10. Ob. 
2nd. 11. Rule 3rd. 12. Ob. 1st. 13. Ob. 2nd. 14. Rule 
4th. 15. Rule 5th. 16. Rule 6th. 17. Repeat the Obser- 
vation. 18. Rule 7th. 19. Ob. 1st. 20. Ob. 2nd. 21. Ob. 
3rd. 22. Ob. 4th. 

LESSON XIII.— HYPERBOLE &c. 

1. In what does a hyperbole consist ? 2. What is said of 
this figure ? 3. Give the examples. 4. How many kinds of 
hyperboles are there ? 5. Which are the best ? 6. When 
must hyperboles be employed with more caution ? 7. What 
' is a bombast ? 8. What is personification ? 9. Give the 
examples. 10. How many degrees of this figure are there ? 
11 What admits of it? 12 What is said of the second de- 
cree? 13 What is said of the third? 14 Repeat Rule 1st 
for personification. 15 Repeat Rule 2nd. 



LESSON XIV— ON COMPARISON &c. 



1 What is a comparison ? 2 How many kinds of com- 
parison are there ? 3 What is done in explaining compari- 
sons ? 4 What are chiefly to be studied in comparisons of 
this kind ? 5 Which occur more frequently ? 6 What is 
the foundation of this figure ? 7 When should a simile or 

I comparison not be introduced ? 8 What is said of embel- 
lishing comparison ? 9 What does it suppose? 10 From 
what should comparisons not be drawn ? 11 What more? 

j 12 What is said of the object from which a comparison is 

] drawn ? 13 What figures should be avoided in compositions 
of a serious kind? 14 Upon what is antithesis founded? 

] 15 How do objects opposed to one another appear in strong- 
er light ? 16 What is to be avoided ? 17 What are inter- 
rogations and exclamations ? 18 Repeat what is said of in- 
terrogations. When may interrogations be successfully em- 
ployed ? 



94 

LESSON XV— ON THE CHARACTERS OF STYLE. 

1 How many general characters of style are there? 2 Name 
them. 3 What is said of a diffuse writer ? 4 Of a concise 
one ? 5 What is said of each of them ? 6 What difference 
between spoken and read discourses ? 7 What is said of 
the style of a feeble writer ? 8 What is said of a nervous 
writer ? 9 A dry style ? 10 A plain style ? 11 A neat 
style ? 12 An elegant style ? 13 A florid style ? 

LESSON XVI— DIRECTIONS &c. 

1 What is the first direction for forming a proper style ? 
2 The second ? 3 The next ? 4 The fourth ? 5 The next ? 
6 The sixth ? 7 The next ? 8 What is necessary before 
you commence to write your composition ? 9 Of what are 
you to beware ? 10 What further direction is given ? 
11 For what must the work of correction be left ? 12 With 
what ought the writer to be well acquainted ? 13 What will 
be the benefit of this ? 14 What direction is here given \ 
15 In doing this what is necessary? 16 Of what ought the 
writer to be careful ? 17 Repeat the general rule. 

LESSON XVII— ON ELOQUENCE OF POPULAR 
ASSEMBLIES. 

1 What is eloquence ? 2 What are its essential proper- 
ties ? 3 What are indispensible to true eloquence ? What 
is its foundation ? 5 What should be the principal object 
of the orator ? 6 What should he also study ? 7 What do 
conviction and persuasion affect ? 8 What must the orator j 
therefore do ? 9 How is eloquence generally divided ? 10 
What is said of the three degrees ? 11 What is meant by 
passion ? 12 What is necessary to the public speaker ? 13 
Upon what should he rest ? 14 What is said of ornament ? 
15 Repeat Rule 1st. 16 2nd. 17 3rd. 18 What 
gives scope to the most animated manner of public 
speaking ? 19 What is said of movements in a great as- 
sembly ? 20 What is said of the expressed warmth of the 
speaker ? 21 What should the speaker never do ? 22 Re- 
peat the Rule. 23 What is further said of the public speak- 
el- ? 24 What must he not attempt to do ? 25 He should 
be so far master 6f himself as in the midst of passion to be 
what ? 26 What is said of the confusion and disorder of \ 
uneducated speakers ? 27 What is the speaker carefully to i 



95 

regard ? 23 What is said of the imitation of ancient au- 
thors ? 29 No one should attempt speaking in public with- 
out knowing what ? SO Which manner is considered the 
most proper for public speakers ? 31 By what however 
must the speaker be guided ? 32 What ought never to be 
forgotten ? 83 What would be the effect of giving too ma- 
ny views of the same subject ? 

LESSON XVIII— ELOQUENCE OF THE BAR. 

1 To be successful to what must the speaker apply him - 
self? 2 By doing what would the speaker at the bar sub- 
ject himself to very great ridicule ? 3 What is his chief 
business ? 4 What is said of the judicial orations of the 
ancients ? 5 What is the grand secret of a lawyer's success ? 
6 What is further said ? 7 In what should he be very par- 
ticular ? 8 What will be the result of this ? 9 What is 
further said of the study of eloquence ? 10 What compar- 
ison is made between the cold fyc. tyc, and the elegant 
speaker? 11 What should be the lawyer's grand study ? 
12 What is said of his style ? 13 What should he be par- 
ticular in guarding against ? 14 To the habit of what should 
he form himself ? 15 In speaking at the bar what should 
Ibe distinctly shown ? 16 In what should he be distinct ? 17 
What is said of a clear method? 18 What is said of the 
lawyer's relating facts ? 19 What is said of argumentation ? 
20 What should the lawyer be always candid in stating ? 21 
What will be the result if he state them with accuracy and 
candor ? 22 What is said of wit at the bar ? 23 What 
causes should an advocate be particular in declining ? 

LESSON XIX.— ELOQUENCE OF THE PULPIT- 

I 1 To preach with interest, effect and power, what is nec- 
essary ? 2 What is the principal characteristic of pulpit el- 
oquence ? 3 What is said of this ? 4 What is said of the 
French Onction ? 5 What does a pulpit discourse require? 
j6 What is meant by this ? 7 What must predominate ? 8 
|The unity of a sermon does not what ? 9 What is said of 
'the subject of every sermon ? 10 How is attention always 
commanded? 11 Of what should a preacher be cautious? 
;12 Repeat the additional remark? 13 What should be the 
grand object of the preacher ? 14 What more ? 15 What 
should he avoid ? 16 What is further said about a discourse? 



96 

17 What should the preacher keep in view ? 18 When is 
he sure of attention ? 19 What study is necessary for the 
preacher ? 20 What produces a wonderful effect in preach- 
ing ? 21 What is said of sermons ? 22 What does the 
preacher do by pursuing this course ? 23 What is said of 
this ? 24 Upon what can the preacher build with safety ? 

LESSON XX.— THE PLAN OF A DISCOURSE. 

1. How many parts are there in a regular discourse ? 2. 
Repeat what is said of these ? 3. What is said about the in- 
troduction ? 4. When should a speaker plan his discourse ? 
5. What should be carefully studied in the introduction ? 6. 
Why? 7 What is an indispensable characteristic ? 8 How 
should the modesty of the speaker appear? 9 What should 
the orator also whow ? 10 Repeat the additional remark? 
11 What is said about vehemence in the introduction? 12 
What is the exception to this rule? 13 How should the in- 
troduction be proportioned? 14 What succeeds the intro- 
duction? 15 How should this be expressed? 16 To this 
what generally succeeds? 17 Repeat Rule 1st. 18 The 
observation to the Rule. 19 Rule 2nd. 20 Rule 3rd. 
21 Rule 4th. 22 Ob. 1st. 23 Ob. 2nd. 24 Rule 5th. 25 
Ob. 1st. 26 Ob. 2nd. 27 Ob. 3rd. 28 What is the next 
part in order? 29 What are the properties which critics 
require in narration ? 30 What is said of an act or single 
circumstance left in obscurity at the bar ? 31 What will be 
the result of the improbability of the narration ? 32 To 
render narration distinct what is necessary ? 33 To be 
probable what is necessary ? 34 In sermons what takes the 
place of narration? 35 What is said of it ? 36 What must 
the Preacher do to be well heard? 37 What must he also 
do? 

LESSON XXL— ARGUMENTATIVE PART. 

1 What constitutes the foundation of all manly and per- 
suasive eloquence ? 2 How many things require attention 
with regard to argument ? 3 What is the basis of the rest ? 
4 How should arguments advance ? 5 Where is this method 
recommended ? 6 If the speaker distrust his cause and have 
but one material argument, where should it be placed ? 7 
When amidst a variety of arguments there be one or two 
more feeble than the rest, where should they be placed ? 8 
What is said of strong and convincing arguments ? 9 Of 



97 

arguments of doubtful character ? 10 Of a few well chosen 
arguments ? 11 Of a favorable argument ? 

LESSON XXII.— PATHETIC PART. 

1 Repeat the first direction 2 To determine this belongs 
to what ? 3 Repeat the additional .remark ? 4 What mult 

SSS? fi e w°h ? + f Tl , e + ? athetic is never admitted «s 

when? 6 T\ hat should the speaker avoid? 7 To everv 
emotion and passion nature has adapted what ? 8 Repeat 
the additional remark. 9 What is the basis in all success- 
ful execution in pathetic oratory ? 10 What is said of the 
language of passion ? 11 What is said of painting to the 
imagination ? 12 What should be avoided ? P 13 Where are 
comparisons always dangerous and highly improper ? 

LESSON XXII— OX PAGE 81. 

1 What constitutes historical painting ? 2 In what did the 
ancients eminently excel ? 3 What should always reign in 
history ? 4 What is further said about the historian f 5 
What are the inferior kinds of historical composition ? 

LESSON XXIIL—ON LOGIC. 
1 In written or spoken discourses what should the writer 
or speaker possess? 2 How should he dispose his argu- 
ments ? 3 What is logic? 4 What are the operations^ 
the mind m acquiring and communicating knowledge » «; 
What is perception? 6 Judgment? 7 Expressed in words 
what is it called ? 8 In reasoning what do we do ? 9 What 
is the result of reasoning ? 10 What is the expression of an 
act of reasoning called? 11 Give an example > 12 Whit 
u a proposition ? 13 What is a simple proposition? 14 
W hat is a compound proposition ? 15 A simple Drnnnritinn 
consists of what ? 16* What is the subject?* if Wha he 
predicate ? 18 Of what does the predicate consist ? 19 
Give an example. 20 What is said of the res copula 
alone without the copula? 21 Of how many plr s does a 
S" tl0 23 C °wf ? I 2 ^ hatisf ^ersaidlb P out^ 
dicate ? 23 When should an attribute only be applied to 
the predicate? 24 What do logicians not acknowledge ? 
25 How are simple propositions divided ? 26 What is a 

li" ^ ? 27 ^ hat a P ure Proposition ? 28 Of 
what does a modal proposition consist ? 29 What is further 



98 

said of the dictum and modus ? 30 How may propositions 
also be divided ? 31 What is further said of propositions ? 
32 What are the signs of a universal proposition ? 33 In 
what is the predicate limited to part of the subject ? 34 
What are the signs of a particular proposition ? 35 What 
is a true proposition ? 36 Whtt is a false proposition ? 37 
What is a demonstrable proposition ? 38 What is a demon- 
stration ? 39 What are corolaries ? 

LESSON XXXV.—ON SYLLOGISM. 

1 What is a syllogism ? 2 Examples. 3 In syllogism 
what is the conclusion ? 4 What is the major proposition? 
5 What the minor ? 6 Example. 7 What is further said 
of syllogisms ? 8 What is a dilemma ? 9 Example. 10 
What is analogy ? 11 Example. 12 What is a sophism ? 
13 What is ignorantio clenchi ? 14 What is petitio princi- 
pii ? 15 What is arguing in a circle ? 



FINIS 



INDEX. 



Dedication, - Page 3 

Preface, - - - - - 5 

Recommendations, - 9 

Rhetoric — Language — Taste, - - - 13 

Criticism and Genius — Style, 14 

On Sentences, - - - - 15 

Punctuation and Rules of - - - 16 

Examples to the Rules, - - - 19 

Rules for Written Composition, - - - 21 

Examples to the Rules, 25 

Structure of Sentences, 30 

Rules of Rhetoric, 31 

On the structure of Sentences — Harmony, - 36 

Nature of Figurative Language, 87 

On Metaphors, 38 

Rules, - - - - - 39 

Hyperbole, Personification and Apostrophe, - 41 

Rules for the third sort of Personification, - 42 

Figures of Speech, 43 

On the Characters of Style, - 45 

Directions for Forming a Proper Style, - 47 

General Rule — Eloquence of Popular Assemblies, 48 

Rules, - - - - - 50 

Eloquence of the Bar, 52 

Eloquence of the Pulpit, 55 

The Plan of a Discourse, - - - 57 

Argumentative part of a Discourse, 62 

The Pathetic part of a Discourse, - • 63 

The Peroration, 65 

On Delivery, - - - - - 66 

On Gesture, - - - - - 70 

On Means of Improving in Eloquence, 72 

On History, 75 

On Historical Writing, 79 

On Logic, - - - - - 81 

On Syllogism, - - - - - 85 

Questions for Examination, - - - 87 



RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE PRESS. 

After a thorough and careful examination of the work, we 
are convinced that those who are seeking the advancement 
and welfare of the rising generation will feel grateful to the 
Rev. Gentleman for this literary production, and we cheer- 
fully recommend it to those who desire to acquaint them- 
selves with the fundamental principles of Rhetoric, so essen- 
tial to good composition. — Belleville Intelligencer. 

We had observed several favorable notices of the Rev. Mr. 
Hutchinson's Rhetoric in several of our exchanges, and the 
fact that it comes highly recommended by gentlemen of 
ability and experience, residing in this place and elsewhere, 
affords a guarantee as to its merits. — Hastings Chronicle. 

We can safely recommend it to the public, as a practical 
compendium, well adapted to its intended purposes. — To- 
ronto Patriot. 

It seems admirably adapted to popular use by the simpli- 
city of its arrangement, and we trust it will be generally 
adopted as a class book. — Kingston News. 

We earnestly recommend it to those who desire to write 
with;taste, elegance and propriety.— Port Hope Watchman. 

Rhetoric. — By the Rev. D. Falloon Hutchinson. This is 
a short and very creditable treatise on Rhetoric. It is very 
logical in its arrangement and pertinent in its details. We 
think it well calculated to introduce young persons to the 
theory of public speaking, in an easy and pleasing manner, 
as well as to discipline their minds to a clear, unembarrassed 
and lucid arrangement of a subject. We recommend this un- 
pretending treatise to the notice of Members of Parliament, 
Clergymen, Lecturers, and all who have occasion to speak in 
public. — Toronto Colonist. 

It is a complete exhibition of the graces and style of Eng- 
lish composition and public oratory. — Simcoe Standard. 



M, Hutchinson ^produced ., .very o^^^j 

Sof mr P ™^gage^ortimetotime tap. 

Schools. Many P^Boub ^ ^ t to become acqaml 

than 100 V&g es.-Christian Guardian. 

The Rev D. P. Hutchinson has placed in out ^hatfj 
ClfssBolko n Rhetoric designed for *£*«£*$ 

fierce to those who desire to acquire an easy, elegant ^ 
correct style.— Cobourg Star. 

ThpRevMr Hutchinson's Rhetoric. • We have rec 
lne Kev. mi. "" t ,, aut h or now in Montreal. 

^tA^Zcleser,,--Montreal Conner. 

This worh will no ^^^S^ £ ^ 

S^on^^^^ 

introduced as a common School Book.— ii><>«aH 



man. 



ZftSSfi. ES»" W- of *. r r »* 

Sf. Catharines Journal. 

The Rev. D. F. Hutchinson's Rhetoric. Ai i an _«d t 
g anS correct writing we ^£oS£lS^ 
will be exceedingly valuablo.-ityouw ^' a ^ el '% 

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